Poverty and Support for Militant Politics: Evidence from Pakistan

American Journal of Political Science

Volumn 57, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 30-48

  Blair, Graeme ^a   Christine Fair, C ^b   Malhotra, Neil ^c   Shapiro, Jacob N ^d  

^a PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d PRINCETON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84871934151     PISSN: 00925853     EISSN: 15405907     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2012.00604.x     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. Abadie, Alberto. 2006. "Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism. American Economic Review 96(2): 50-56.
2. Aziz, MahaHosain. 2009. "In Pakistan, Fight Terror by Creating Jobs. BusinessWeek : Asia, November 25. http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/nov2009/gb20091125_996881.htm (accessed January 12, 2012).
3. Becker, Gary S. 1968. "Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy 76(2): 169-217.
4. Bell, J. Bowyer. 1978. "Terrorist Scripts and Live-Action Spectaculars. Columbia Journalism Review 17(1): 47-50.
5. Benmelech, Effi, Claude Berrebi, and Estaban F. Klor 2010. "Economic Conditions and the Quality of Suicide Terrorism. NBER Working Paper 16320 : 1-40.
6. Berman, Eli, Michael Callen, Joseph H. Felter, and Jacob N. Shapiro. 2011. "Do Working Men Rebel? Insurgency and Unemployment in Afghanistan, Iraq, and the Philippines. Journal of Conflict Resolution 55(4): 496-528.
7. Berrebi, Claude. 2007. "Evidence about the Link between Education, Poverty and Terrorism among Palestinians. Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy 13(1): 1-35.
8. Blattman, Christopher, and Edward, Miguel 2010. "Civil War. Journal of Economic Literature 48(1): 3-57.
9. Blomberg, S. Brock, Gregory D. Hess, and Athanasios Orphanides. 2004. "The Macroeconomic Consequences of Terror: Theory and the Case of Israel. Journal of Monetary Economics 51(5): 1007-32.
10. Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2005. "The Quality of Terror. American Journal of Political Science 49(3): 515-30.
11. Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2011. "Rebel Tactics." Working Paper, University of Chicago.
12. Bullock, Will, Kosuke Imai, and Jacob N. Shapiro 2011. "Statistical Analysis of Endorsement Experiments: Measuring Support for Militant Groups in Pakistan. Political Analysis 19(4): 363-84.
13. Burgoon, Brian. 2006. "On Welfare and Terror: Social Welfare Policies and Political Economic Roots of Terrorism. Journal of Conflict Resolution 50(2): 176-203.
14. Chaiken, S. 1980. "Heuristic versus Systematic Information Processing and the Use of Source versus Message Cues in Persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39(5): 752-66.
15. Chiozza, Giacomo. 2011. "Winning Hearts and Minds: The Political Sociology of Popular Support for Suicide Bombings." Working Paper, Vanderbilt University.
16. Cialdini, Robert B. 1984. Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion New York : William Morrow.
17. Collier, Paul. 2009. War, Guns, and Votes New York : HarperCollins.
18. Crenshaw, Martha. 1990. "The Causes of Terrorism." In International Terrorism: Characteristics, Causes, Controls, ed. Charles W. Kegley Jr. New York : St. Martin's Press, 92-105.
19. Department for International Development. 2005. Fighting Poverty to Build a Safer World: A Strategy for Security and Development http://www.dfid.gov.uk/documents/publications/securityforall.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).
20. "Donors Pledge $5bn for Pakistan." 2009. BBC, April 17. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8003557.stm (accessed February 21, 2011).
21. Dowling, Ralph E. 2006. "Terrorism and the Media: A Rhetorical Genre. Journal of Communication 36(1): 12-24.
22. Dreher, Alex, and Andreas Fuchs 2011. "Does Terror Increase Aid? Public Choice 149(3-4): 337-63.
23. Dube, Oeindrila, and Juan F. Vargas 2011. "Are All Resources Cursed? Coffee, Oil, and Armed Conflict in Colombia." Working Paper, New York University.
24. Esposito, John L., and John O. Voll Islam and Democracy New York : Oxford University Press.
25. Fair, C. Christine. 2011. "The Militant Challenge in Pakistan. Asia Policy 11: 105-37.
26. Fair, C. Christine, and Shepherd, Bryan 2006. "Who Supports Terrorism? Evidence from Fourteen Muslim Countries. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 29(1): 51-74.
27. Fair, C. Christine, Clay Ramsay, and Steven Kull 2008. Pakistani Public Opinion on Democracy, Islamist Militancy, and Relations with the US Washington, DC : WorldPublicOpinion.org and United States Institute of Peace. http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/jan08/Pakistan_Jan08_rpt.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).
28. Gaibulloev, Khusrav, and Todd Sandler 2011. "The Adverse Effect of Transnational and Domestic Terrorism on Growth in Africa. Journal of Peace Research 48(3): 355-71.
29. Ghobarah, Hazem Adam, Paul Huth, and Bruce Russett 2003. "Civil Wars Kill and Maim People-Long after the Shooting Stops. American Political Science Review 97(2): 189-202.
30. Gurr, Ted R. 1970. Why Men Rebel Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press.
31. Holbrooke, Richard C. 2009. Testimony of Richard C. Holbrooke, Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, Department of State, before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States House of Representatives Washington, DC : May 5, 2009.
32. International Republican Institute. 2009. IRI Pakistan Index http://www.iri.org/sites/default/files/2009-News-Release-Files/2009%20May%2011%20IRI%20Pakistan%20Index, %20March%207-30, %202009.pdf (accessed April 10, 2012).
33. Huband, Mark. 1998. Warriors of the Prophet: The Struggle for Islam Boulder, CO : Westview Press.
34. Jo, Jung In. 2011. "Who Sympathizes with Osama bin Laden? Revisiting the Hearts and Minds of Pakistani and Indonesian Muslim People. International Journal of Public Opinion Research. doi:10.1093/ijpor/edr047 (accessed January 12, 2012).
35. Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2003. Terrorism in the Mind of God Berkeley : University of California Press.
36. Krosnick, Jon A. 1999. "Maximizing Measurement Quality: Principles of Good Questionnaire Design." In Measures of Political Attitudes, ed. John Paul Robinson, Phillip R. Shaver, and Lawrence S. Wrightsman San Diego, CA : Academic Press, 37-57.
37. Krueger, Alan B., and Malečková, Jitka 2003. "Education, Poverty and Terrorism: Is There a Causal Connection? Journal of Economic Perspectives 17(4): 119-44.
38. Lee, EunSul, and Ron N. Forthofer 2006. Analyzing Complex Survey Data 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
39. Lupia, Arthur, and McCubbins, Mathew D 1998. The Democratic Dilemma: Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
40. Marlowe, David, and Douglas P. Crowne 1964. The Approval Motive: Studies in Evaluative Dependence New York : Wiley.
41. Miguel, Edward, Shanker Satyanath, and Ernest Sergenti 2004. "Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach. Journal of Political Economy 112(4): 725-53.
42. Mousseau, Michael. 2011. "Urban Poverty and Support for Islamist Terror: Survey Results of Muslims in Fourteen Countries. Journal of Peace Research 48(1): 35-47.
43. Muller, Edward N. 1985. "Income Inequality, Regime Repressiveness, and Political Violence. American Sociological Review 50(1): 47-61.
44. Nagel, Jack. 1974. "Inequality and Discontent: A Non-Linear Hypothesis. World Politics 26(4): 453-72.
45. National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. 2004. The 9/11 Commission Report Philip Zelikow, Executive Director; Bonnie D. Jenkins, Counsel; Ernest R May, Senior Advisor. New York : W. W. Norton.
46. Nazir, Said. 2011. "Polio Vaccination: Changing Opinions." Pakistan Express Tribune, March 25. http://tribune.com.pk/story/134465/polio-vaccination-changing-opinions/ (accessed January 12, 2012).
47. O'Keefe, Daniel J. 1990. Persuasion: Theory and Research Newbury Park, CA : Sage.
48. "Pakistan Asks U.S. for 30 Billion Dollar 'Marshall Plan' to Stabilize Region." 2009. Washington Times, April 8. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2009/apr/08/pakistan-asks-us-for-30-billion-dollar-39marshall-/ (accessed January 9, 2012).
49. Pakistan Federal Bureau of Statistics. 2009. Household Integrated Economic Survey 2007-2008 Islamabad : Government of Pakistan.
50. Petty, Richard E., and John T. Cacioppo 1986. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change New York : Springer-Verlag.
51. Petty, Richard E., John T. Cacioppo, and David Schumann 1983. "Central and Peripheral Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement. Journal of Consumer Research 10(2): 135-46.
52. Petty, Richard E., and Duane T. Wegener 1998. "Attitude Change: Multiple Roles for Persuasion Variables." In The Handbook of Social Psychology: Volume One 4th ed., ed. Daniel T. Gilbert, Susan T. Fiske, and Gardner Lindzey New York : McGraw-Hill, 323-90.
53. Piazza, James A. 2007. "Draining the Swamp: Democracy Promotion, State Failure, and Terrorism in 19 Middle Eastern Countries. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 30(6): 521-39.
54. Piazza, James A. 2011. "Poverty, Minority Economic Discrimination, and Domestic Terrorism. Journal of Peace Research 48(3): 339-53.
55. Pew Research Center. 2009. "Pakistani Public Opinion." http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=265 (accessed February 21, 2011).
56. Russell, Charles A., and Bowman H. Miller 1977. "Profile of a Terrorist. Military Review 57(8): 21-34.
57. Sambanis, Nicholas. 2005. "Poverty and the Organization of Political Violence. Brookings Trade Forum 2004: 165-211.
58. Shafiq, M. Najeebm, and Abdulkader H. Sinno 2010. "Education, Income, and Support for Suicide Bombings: Evidence from Six Muslim Countries. Journal of Conflict Resolution 54(1): 146-78.
59. Shapiro, Jacob N., and C. Christine Fair 2010. "Understanding Support for Islamist Militancy in Pakistan. International Security 34(3): 79-118.
60. Sigelman, Lee, and Simpson, Miles 1977. "A Cross-National Test of the Linkage between Economic Inequality and Political Violence. Journal of Conflict Resolution 21(1): 105-28.
61. Snyder, David. 1978. "Collective Violence: A Research Agenda and Some Strategic Considerations. Journal of Conflict Resolution 22(3): 499-534.
62. Stern, Jessica. 2000. "Pakistan's Jihad Culture. Foreign Affairs 79: 115-26.
63. Terror Free Tomorrow, and New America Foundation. 2008. "Results of a New Nationwide Public Opinion Survey of Pakistan before the June 2008 Pakistani By-Elections." http://www.newamerica.net/files/TFT-Pakistan2008.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).
64. Tessler, Mark, and Michael D. H. Robbins 2007. "What Leads Some Ordinary Men and Women to Approve of Terrorist Acts Against the United States? Journal of Conflict Resolution 51(2): 305-28.
65. U.S. Agency for International Development. 2009. Development Assistance and Counter-Extremism: A Guide to Programming http://www.usaid.gov/locations/sub-saharan_+africa/publications/docs/da_and_cea_guide_to_programming.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).
66. U.S. Congress. House. 2009. Pakistan Enduring Assistance and Cooperation Enhancement Act of 2009, HR 1886, 111th Cong., 1st sess. (June 11, 2009).
67. U.S. Congress. Senate. 2009. Enhanced Partnership with Pakistan Act of 2009 S1707, 111th Cong., 1st sess. (May 4, 2009).
68. U.S. State Department. 2003. National Strategy for Combatting Terrorism https://www.cia.gov/news-information/cia-the-war-on-terrorism/Counter_Terrorism_Strategy.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011)
69. Von Hippel, Karin. 2008. "A Counterradicalization Strategy for a New U.S. Administration. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 618(1): 182-96.
70. Wood, Robert A. 2009. "U.S. Pledges $1 Billion for Pakistan at Tokyo Donors' Conference: Aid to Support Broader U.S. Commitment to the Pakistani People." U.S. Department of State, Office of the Spokesperson, April 17, 2009. http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2009/April/20090417123036xjsnommis5.550784e-02.html (accessed February 21, 2011).
71. Wood, Wendy, and Carl A. Kallgren 1988. "Communicator Attributes and Persuasion: Recipients' Access to Attitude-Relevant Information in Memory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 14(1): 172-82.
72. WorldPublicOpinion.org. 2009. "Pakistani Public Turns against Taliban, but Still Negative on US." http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/pdf/jul09/WPO_Pakistan_Jul09_quaire.pdf (accessed February 21, 2011).