Echocardiography in pulmonary arterial hypertension: From diagnosis to prognosis

Journal of the American Society of Echocardiography

Volumn 26, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 1-14

  Bossone, Eduardo ^a,b   D'Andrea, Antonello ^c   D'Alto, Michele ^c   Citro, Rodolfo ^b   Argiento, Paola ^c   Ferrara, Francesco ^d   Cittadini, Antonio ^d   Rubenfire, Melvyn ^e   Naeije, Robert ^f  

^a IRCCS POLICLINICO SAN DONATO   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF SALERNO   (Italy)

^c SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES FEDERICO II   (Italy)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^f ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Echocardiography; Exercise induced pulmonary hypertension; Pulmonary hypertension

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE; AMLODIPINE; DILTIAZEM; NIFEDIPINE; NITRIC OXIDE; PROSTACYCLIN;

ALGORITHM; BODY MASS; DOPPLER ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; EXERCISE INDUCED PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; EXERCISE TEST; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE FILLING; HUMAN; LUNG CIRCULATION; LUNG HEMODYNAMICS; PROGNOSIS; PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; REVIEW; SURVIVAL; TRANSESOPHAGEAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY;

DISEASE PROGRESSION; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION, PULMONARY; PROGNOSIS; PULMONARY ARTERY; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS;

EID: 84871375415     PISSN: 08947317     EISSN: 10976795     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.echo.2012.10.009     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. V.V. McLaughlin, S.L. Archer, D.B. Badesch, R.J. Barst, H.W. Farber, J.R. Lindner American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Expert Consensus Documents; American Heart Association; American College of Chest Physicians; American Thoracic Society, Inc; Pulmonary Hypertension Association ACCF/AHA 2009 expert consensus document on pulmonary hypertension: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Expert Consensus Documents and the American Heart Association developed in collaboration with the American College of Chest Physicians; American Thoracic Society, Inc; and the Pulmonary Hypertension Association J Am Coll Cardiol 53 2009 1573 1619
2. N. Galiè, M.M. Hoeper, M. Humbert, A. Torbicki, J.L. Vachiery, J.A. Barbera ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines (CPG) Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS), endorsed by the International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT) Eur Heart J 30 2009 2493 2537
3. G. Simonneau, I.M. Robbins, M. Beghetti, R.N. Channick, M. Delcroix, and C.P. Denton Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension J Am Coll Cardiol 54 suppl 2009 S43 S54
4. E. Bossone, R. Citro, F. Blasi, and L. Allegra Echocardiography in pulmonary arterial hypertension: an essential tool Chest 131 2007 339 341
5. E. Bossone, B.D. Bodini, A. Mazza, and L. Allegra Pulmonary arterial hypertension: the key role of echocardiography Chest 127 2005 1836 1843
6. E. Bossone, T.H. Duong-Wagner, G. Paciocco, H. Oral, M. Ricciardi, and D.S. Bach Echocardiographic features of primary pulmonary hypertension J Am Soc Echocardiogr 12 1999 655 662
7. A. Milan, C. Magnino, and F. Veglio Echocardiographic indexes for the non-invasive evaluation of pulmonary hemodynamics J Am Soc Echocardiogr 23 2010 225 239
8. L.G. Rudski, W.W. Lai, J. Afilalo, L. Hua, M.D. Handschumacher, and K. Chandrasekaran Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of the right heart in adults: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography endorsed by the European Association of Echocardiography, a registered branch of the European Society of Cardiology, and the Canadian Society of Echocardiography J Am Soc Echocardiogr 23 2010 685 713
9. L. Hatle, B.A. Angelsen, and A. Tromsdal Non-invasive estimation of pulmonary artery systolic pressure with Doppler ultrasound Br Heart J 45 1981 157 165
10. A. Kitabatake, M. Inoue, M. Asao, T. Masuyama, J. Tanouchi, and T. Morita Noninvasive evaluation of pulmonary hypertension by a pulsed Doppler technique Circulation 68 1983 302 309
11. P.G. Yock, and R.L. Popp Noninvasive estimation of right ventricular systolic pressure by Doppler ultrasound in patients with tricuspid regurgitation Circulation 70 1984 657 662
12. P.J. Currie, J.B. Seward, K.L. Chan, D.A. Fyfe, D.J. Hagler, and D.D. Mair Continuous wave Doppler determination of right ventricular pressure: a simultaneous Doppler-catheterization study in 127 patients J Am Coll Cardiol 6 1985 750 756
13. J.F. Aduen, R. Castello, M.M. Lozano, G.N. Hepler, C.A. Keller, and F. Alvarez An alternative echocardiographic method to estimate mean pulmonary artery pressure: diagnostic and clinical implications J Am Soc Echocardiogr 22 2009 814 819
14. S. Mahapatra, R.A. Nishimura, J.K. Oh, and M.D. McGoon The prognostic value of pulmonary vascular capacitance determined by Doppler echocardiography in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension J Am Soc Echocardiogr 19 2006 1045 1050
15. K. Yared, P. Noseworthy, A.E. Weyman, E. McCabe, M.H. Picard, and A.L. Baggish Pulmonary artery acceleration time provides an accurate estimate of systolic pulmonary arterial pressure during transthoracic echocardiography J Am Soc Echocardiogr 24 2011 687 692
16. B.J. Kircher, R.B. Himelman, and N.B. Schiller Noninvasive estimation of right atrial pressure from the inspiratory collapse of the inferior vena cava Am J Cardiol 66 1990 493 496
17. T. Masuyama, K. Kodama, A. Kitabatake, H. Sato, S. Nanto, and M. Inoue Continuous-wave Doppler echocardiographic detection of pulmonary regurgitation and its application to noninvasive estimation of pulmonary artery pressure Circulation 74 1986 484 492
18. A.E. Abbas, F.D. Fortuin, N.B. Schiller, C.P. Appleton, C.A. Moreno, and S.J. Lester Echocardiographic determination of mean pulmonary artery pressure Am J Cardiol 92 2003 1373 1376
19. D. Chemla, V. Castelain, M. Humbert, J.L. Hébert, G. Simonneau, and Y. Lecarpentier New formula for predicting mean pulmonary artery pressure using systolic pulmonary artery pressure Chest 126 2004 1313 1317
20. A. Dabestani, G. Mahan, J.M. Gardin, K. Takenaka, C. Burn, and A. Allfie Evaluation of pulmonary artery pressure and resistance by pulsed Doppler echocardiography Am J Cardiol 59 1987 662 668
21. A.E. Abbas, F.D. Fortuin, N.B. Schiller, C.P. Appleton, C.A. Moreno, and S.J. Lester A simple method for noninvasive estimation of pulmonary vascular resistance J Am Coll Cardiol 41 2003 1021 1027
22. F. Haddad, R. Zamanian, A.S. Beraud, I. Schnittger, J. Feinstein, and T. Peterson A novel non-invasive method of estimating pulmonary vascular resistance in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension J Am Soc Echocardiogr 22 2009 523 529
23. J.S. Arkles, A.R. Opotowsky, J. Ojeda, F. Rogers, T. Liu, and V. Prassana Shape of the right ventricular Doppler envelope predicts hemodynamics and right heart function in pulmonary hypertension Am J Respir Crit Care Med 183 2011 268 276
24. S.F. Nagueh, K.J. Middleton, H.A. Kopelen, W.A. Zoghbi, and M.A. Quinones Doppler tissue imaging: a noninvasive technique for evaluation of left ventricular relaxation and estimation of filling pressures J Am Coll Cardiol 30 1997 1527 1533
25. H. Dokainish, J.S. Nguyen, R. Sengupta, M. Pillai, M. Alam, and J. Bobek Do additional echocardiographic variables increase the accuracy of E/e′ for predicting left ventricular filling pressure in normal ejection fraction? An echocardiographic and invasive hemodynamic study J Am Soc Echocardiogr 23 2010 156 161
26. M.L. Haeck, R.W. Scherptong, N. Ajmone Marsan, E.R. Holman, M.J. Schalij, and J.J. Bax Prognostic value of right ventricular longitudinal peak systolic strain in patients with pulmonary hypertension Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 5 2012 628 636
27. K.L. Chan, P.J. Currie, J.B. Seward, D.J. Hagler, D.D. Mair, and A.J. Tajik Comparison of three Doppler ultrasound methods in the prediction of pulmonary artery pressure J Am Coll Cardiol 9 1987 549 554
28. F. Parent, D. Bachir, J. Inamo, F. Lionnet, F. Driss, and G. Loko A hemodynamic study of pulmonary hypertension in sickle cell disease N Engl J Med 365 2011 44 53
29. M.R. Fisher, P.R. Forfia, E. Chamera, T. Housten-Harris, H.C. Champion, and R.E. Girgis Accuracy of Doppler echocardiography in the hemodynamic assessment of pulmonary hypertension Am J Respir Crit Care Med 179 2009 615 621
30. J.D. Rich, S.J. Shah, R.S. Swamy, A. Kamp, and S. Rich Inaccuracy of Doppler echocardiographic estimates of pulmonary artery pressures in patients with pulmonary hypertension: implications for clinical practice Chest 139 2011 988 993
31. S. Janda, N. Shahidi, K. Gin, and J. Swiston Diagnostic accuracy of echocardiography for pulmonary hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis Heart 97 2011 612 622
32. B.M. McQullian, M.H. Picard, M. Leawitt, and A.E. Weyman Clinical correlates and reference intervals for pulmonary artery systolic pressure among echocardiographically normal subjects Circulation 104 2001 2797 2802
33. C.S. Lam, B.A. Borlaug, G.C. Kane, F.T. Enders, R.J. Rodeheffer, and M.M. Redfield Age-associated increases in pulmonary artery systolic pressure in the general population Circulation 119 2009 2663 2670
34. S. Huez, K. Retailleau, P. Unger, A. Pavelescu, J.L. Vachiéry, and G. Derumeaux Right and left ventricular adaptation to hypoxia: a tissue Doppler imaging study Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 289 2005 H1391 H1398
35. W.F. Armstrong, and T. Ryan Feigenbaum's Echocardiography 7th ed. 2009 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Philadelphia, PA
36. J.K. Oh, J.B. Seward, and A.J. Tajik The Echo Manual 2nd ed. 1999 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Philadelphia 222
37. A.L. Hinderliter, P.W. Willis IV, W. Long, W.R. Clarke, D. Ralph, E.J. Caldwell PPH Study Group Frequency and prognostic significance of pericardial effusion in primary pulmonary hypertension Am J Cardiol 84 1999 481 484
38. A.L. Hinderliter, P.V. Willis IV, W.A. Long, W.R. Clarke, D. Ralph, E.J. Caldwell PPH Study Group Frequency and severity of tricuspid regurgitation determined by Doppler echocardiography in primary pulmonary hypertension Am J Cardiol 91 2003 1033 1037
39. E.K. Louie, S. Rich, and B.H. Brundage Doppler echocardiographic assessment of impaired left ventricular filling in patients with right ventricular pressure overload due to primary pulmonary hypertension J Am Coll Cardiol 8 1986 1298 1306
40. B.B. Stojnic, S.J. Brecker, H.B. Xiao, S.M. Helmy, M. Mbaissouroum, and D.G. Gibson Left ventricular filling characteristics in pulmonary hypertension: a new mode of ventricular interaction Br Heart J 68 1992 16 20
41. J.T. Reeves, J.H. Linehan, and K.R. Stenmark Distensibility of the normal human lung circulation during exercise Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 288 2005 L419 L425
42. J.T. Reeves, J.A. Dempsey, and R.F. Grover Pulmonary circulation during exercise E.K. Weir, J.T. Reeves, Pulmonary Vascular Physiology and Physiopathology 1989 Marcel Dekker New York 107 133
43. C.M. Bidart, A.E. Abbas, J.M. Parish, H.P. Chaliki, C.A. Moreno, and S.J. Lester The noninvasive evaluation of exercise-induced changes in pulmonary artery pressure and pulmonary vascular resistance J Am Soc Echocardiogr 20 2007 270 275
44. J.B. West Left ventricular filling pressures during exercise: a cardiological blind spot? Chest 113 1998 1695 1697
45. E. Bossone, M. Rubenfire, D.S. Bach, M. Ricciardi, and W.F. Armstrong Range of tricuspid regurgitation velocity at rest and during exercise in normal adult men: implications for the diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension J Am Coll Cardiol 33 1999 1662 1666
46. S.R. Hopkins, R.B. Schoene, W.R. Henderson, R.G. Spragg, T.R. Martin, and J.B. West Intense exercise impairs the integrity of the pulmonary blood-gas barrier in elite athletes Am J Respir Crit Care Med 155 1997 1090 1094
47. P. Argiento, N. Chesler, M. Mulè, M. D'Alto, E. Bossone, and P. Unger Exercise stress echocardiography for the study of the pulmonary circulation Eur Respir J 35 2010 1273 1278
48. E. Grünig, S. Weissmann, N. Ehlken, A. Fijalkowska, C. Fischer, and T. Fourme Stress Doppler echocardiography in relatives of patients with idiopathic and familial pulmonary arterial hypertension: results of a multicenter European analysis of pulmonary artery pressure response to exercise and hypoxia Circulation 119 2009 1747 1757
49. A. La Gerche, A.I. MacIsaac, A.T. Burns, D.J. Mooney, W.J. Inder, and J.U. Voigt Pulmonary transit of agitated contrast is associated with enhanced pulmonary vascular reserve and right ventricular function during exercise J Appl Physiol 109 2010 1307 1317
50. Argiento P, Vanderpool RR, Mule M, Russo MG, D'Alto M, Bossone E, et al. Exercise stress echocardiography of the pulmonary circulation: limits of normal and gender differences. Chest. In press.
51. S. Lalande, P. Yerly, V. Faoro, and R. Naeije Pulmonary vascular distensibility predicts aerobic capacity in healthy individuals J Physiol 590 2012 4279 4288
52. A. LA Gerche, H. Heidbüchel, A.T. Burns, D.J. Mooney, A.J. Taylor, and H.B. Pfluger Disproportionate exercise load and remodeling of the athlete's right ventricle Med Sci Sports Exerc 43 2011 974 981
53. R.B. Himelman, M. Stulbarg, B. Kircher, E. Lee, L. Kee, and N.C. Dean Noninvasive evaluation of pulmonary artery pressure during exercise by saline-enhanced Doppler echocardiography in chronic pulmonary disease Circulation 79 1989 863 871
54. D.A. Oelberg, F. Marcotte, H. Kreisman, N. Wolkove, D. Langleben, and D. Small Evaluation of right ventricular systolic pressure during incremental exercise by Doppler echocardiography in adults with atrial septal defect Chest 113 1998 1459 1465
55. E. Grünig, D. Mereles, W. Hildebrandt, E.R. Swenson, W. Kübler, and H. Kuecherer Stress Doppler echocardiography for identification of susceptibility to high altitude pulmonary edema J Am Coll Cardiol 35 2000 980 987
56. E. Grünig, B. Janssen, D. Mereles, U. Barth, M.M. Borst, and I.R. Vogt Abnormal pulmonary artery pressure response in asymptomatic carriers of primary pulmonary hypertension gene Circulation 102 2000 1145 1150
57. N. Collins, B. Bastian, L. Quiqueree, C. Jones, R. Morgan, and G. Reeves Abnormal pulmonary vascular responses in patients registered with a systemic autoimmunity database: Pulmonary Hypertension Assessment and Screening Evaluation Using Stress Echocardiography (PHASE-I) Eur J Echocardiogr 7 2006 439 446
58. M.L. Alkotob, P. Soltani, M.A. Sheatt, M.C. Katsetos, N. Rothfield, and W.D. Hager Reduced exercise capacity and stress-induced pulmonary hypertension in patients with sclerodermia Chest 130 2006 176 181
59. S. Kiencke, A. Bernheim, M. Maggiorini, M. Fischler, S.V. Aschkenasy, and L. Dorschner Exercise-induced pulmonary artery hypertension: a rare finding? J Am Coll Cardiol 51 2008 513 514
60. V. Steen, M. Chou, V. Shanmugam, M. Mathias, T. Kuru, and R. Morrissey Exercise-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension in patients with systemic sclerosis Chest 134 2008 146 151
61. F. Reichenberger, R. Voswinckel, R. Schulz, O. Mensch, H.A. Ghofrani, and H. Olschewski Noninvasive detection of early pulmonary vascular dysfunction in scleroderma Respir Med 103 2009 1713 1718
62. T. Möller, H. Brun, P.M. Fredriksen, H. Holmstrom, K. Peersen, and E. Pettersen Right ventricular systolic pressure response during exercise in adolescents born with atrial or ventricular septal defect Am J Cardiol 105 2010 1610 1616
63. G. Kovacs, R. Maier, E. Aberer, M. Brodmann, S. Scheidl, and C. Hesse Assessment of pulmonary arterial pressure during exercise in collagen vascular disease: echocardiography vs right-sided heart catheterization Chest 138 2010 270 278
64. M. D'Alto, S. Ghio, A. D'Andrea, A.S. Pazzano, P. Argiento, and R. Camporotondo Inappropriate exercise-induced increase in pulmonary artery pressure in patients with systemic sclerosis Heart 97 2011 112 117
65. J.J. Tolle, A.B. Waxman, T.L. Van Horn, P.P. Pappagianopoulos, and D.M. Systrom Exercise-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension Circulation 118 2008 2183 2189
66. R.J. Oudiz, and L.J. Rubin Exercise-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension: a new addition to the spectrum of pulmonary vascular diseases Circulation 118 2008 2120 2121
67. J.D. MacDougall, R.S. McKelvie, D.E. Moroz, D.G. Sale, N. McCartney, and F. Buick Factors affecting blood pressure during heavy weight lifting and static contractions J Appl Physiol 73 1992 1590 1597
68. S. Huez, F. Roufosse, J.L. Vachiéry, A. Pavelescu, G. Derumeaux, and J.C. Wautrecht Isolated right ventricular dysfunction in systemic sclerosis: latent pulmonary hypertension? Eur Respir J 30 2007 928 936
69. E. Bossone, and R. Naeije Exercise-induced pulmonary hypertension Heart Fail Clin 8 2012 485 495
70. N. Galiè, L.J. Rubin, M. Hoeper, P. Jansa, H. Al-Hiti, and G. Meyer Treatment of patients with mildly symptomatic pulmonary arterial hypertension with bosentan (EARLY study): a double-blind, randomised controlled trial Lancet 371 2008 2093 2100
71. S.M. Proudman, W.M. Stevens, J. Sahhar, and D. Celermajer Pulmonary arterial hypertension in systemic sclerosis: the need for early detection and treatment Intern Med J 37 2007 485 494
72. M. Humbert, O. Sitbon, A. Yaïci, D. Montani, D.S. O'Callaghan, X. Jaïs French Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension Network Survival in incident and prevalent cohorts of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension Eur Respir J 36 2010 549 555
73. V.V. McLaughlin, K.W. Presberg, R.L. Doyle, S.H. Abman, D.C. McCrory, T. Fortin American College of Chest Physicians Prognosis of pulmonary arterial hypertension: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines Chest 126 suppl 2004 78S 92S
74. T. Thenappan, S.J. Shah, S. Rich, and M. Gomberg-Maitland A USA-based registry for pulmonary arterial hypertension: 1982-2006 Eur Respir J 30 2007 1103 1110
75. S.B. Eysmann, H.I. Palevsky, N. Reichek, K. Hackney, and P.S. Douglas Two-dimensional and Doppler-echocardiographic and cardiac catheterization correlates of survival in primary pulmonary hypertension Circulation 80 1989 353 360
76. A.L. Hinderliter, P.W. Willis IV, R.J. Barst, S. Rich, L.J. Rubin, D.B. Badesch Primary Pulmonary Hypertension Study Group Effects of long-term infusion of prostacyclin (epoprostenol) on echocardiographic measures of right ventricular structure and function in primary pulmonary hypertension Circulation 95 1997 1479 1486
77. T.C. Yeo, K.S. Dujardin, C. Tei, D.W. Mahoney, M.D. McGoon, and J.B. Seward Value of a Doppler-derived index combining systolic and diastolic time intervals in predicting outcome in primary pulmonary hypertension Am J Cardiol 81 1998 1157 1161
78. R.J. Raymond, A.L. Hinderliter, P.W. Willis, D. Ralph, E.J. Caldwell, and W. Williams Echocardiographic predictors of adverse outcomes in primary pulmonary hypertension J Am Coll Cardiol 39 2002 1214 1219
79. P.R. Forfia, M.R. Fisher, S.C. Mathai, T. Housten-Harris, A.R. Hemnes, and B.A. Borlaug Tricuspid annular displacement predicts survival in pulmonary hypertension Am J Respir Crit Care Med 174 2006 1034 1041
80. G. Brierre, N. Blot-Souletie, B. Degano, L. Têtu, V. Bongard, and D. Carrié New echocardiographic prognostic factors for mortality in pulmonary arterial hypertension Eur J Echocardiogr 11 2010 516 522
81. S. Ghio, A.S. Pazzano, C. Klersy, L. Scelsi, C. Raineri, and R. Camporotondo Clinical and prognostic relevance of echocardiographic evaluation of right ventricular geometry in patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension Am J Cardiol 107 2011 628 632
82. A. Sachdev, H.R. Villarraga, R.P. Frantz, M.D. McGoon, J.F. Hsiao, and J.F. Maalouf Right ventricular strain for prediction of survival in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension Chest 139 2011 1299 1309
83. F. Haddad, S.A. Hunt, D.N. Rosenthal, and D.J. Murphy Right ventricular function in cardiovascular disease, part I: anatomy, physiology, aging, and functional assessment of the right ventricle Circulation 117 2008 1436 1448
84. L. Jiang Right ventricle A.E. Weyman, Principles and Practice of Echocardiography 1994 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Baltimore, MD 901 921
85. L.J. Dell'Italia The right ventricle: anatomy, physiology, and clinical importance Curr Probl Cardiol 16 1991 653 720
86. S.Y. Ho, and P. Nihoyannopoulos Anatomy, echocardiography, and normal right ventricular dimensions Heart 92 suppl 2006 i2 i13
87. J. Grapsa, D. Dawson, and P. Nihoyannopoulos Assessment of right ventricular structure and function in pulmonary hypertension J Cardiovasc Ultrasound 19 2011 115 125
88. V. Mor-Avi, R.M. Lang, L.P. Badano, M. Belohlavek, N.M. Cardim, and G. Derumeaux Current and evolving echocardiographic techniques for the quantitative evaluation of cardiac mechanics: ASE/EAE consensus statement on methodology and indications endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography J Am Soc Echocardiogr 24 2011 277 313
89. A. Meris, F. Faletra, C. Conca, C. Klersy, F. Regoli, and J. Klimusina Timing and magnitude of regional right ventricular function: a speckle tracking-derived strain study of normal subjects and patients with right ventricular dysfunction J Am Soc Echocardiogr 23 2010 823 831
90. A.P. Kalogeropoulos, V.V. Georgiopoulou, S. Howell, M.A. Pernetz, M.R. Fisher, and S. Lerakis Evaluation of right intraventricular dyssynchrony by two-dimensional strain echocardiography in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension J Am Soc Echocardiogr 21 2008 1028 1034
91. C.Y. Ho, and S.D. Solomon A clinician's guide to tissue Doppler imaging Circulation 113 2006 e396 e398
92. J. Meluzin, L. Spinarova, J. Bakala, J. Toman, J. Krejcí, and P. Hude Pulsed Doppler tissue imaging of the velocity of tricuspid annular systolic motion: a new, rapid, and non-invasive method of evaluating right ventricular systolic function Eur Heart J 22 2001 340 348
93. L.L. Mertens, and M.K. Friedberg Imaging the right ventricle - current state of the art Nat Rev Cardiol 7 2010 551 563
94. I.D. Lytrivi, W.W. Lai, H.H. Ko, J.C. Nielsen, I.A. Parness, and S. Srivastava Color Doppler tissue imaging for evaluation of right ventricular systolic function in patients with congenital heart disease J Am Soc Echocardiogr 18 2005 1099 1104
95. R. Citro, E. Bossone, B. Kuersten, G. Gregorio, and A. Salustri Tissue Doppler and strain imaging: anything left in the echo-lab? Cardiovasc Ultrasound 6 2008 54
96. P. Lindqvist, A. Waldenström, M. Henein, S. Mörner, and E. Kazzam Regional and global right ventricular function in healthy individuals aged 20-90 years: a pulsed Doppler tissue imaging study: Umeå General Population Heart Study Echocardiography 22 2005 305 314
97. T. Kukulski, L. Hübbert, M. Arnold, B. Wranne, L. Hatle, and G.R. Sutherland Normal regional right ventricular function and its change with age: a Doppler myocardial imaging study J Am Soc Echocardiogr 13 2000 194 204
98. Q. Ruan, and S.F. Nagueh Clinical application of tissue Doppler imaging in patients with idiopathic pulmonary hypertension Chest 131 2007 395 401
99. M.F. Nageh, H.A. Kopelen, W.A. Zoghbi, M.A. Quinones, and S.F. Nagueh Estimation of mean right atrial pressure using tissue Doppler imaging Am J Cardiol 84 1999 1448 1451
100. J. Korinek, J. Wang, P.P. Sengupta, C. Miyazaki, J. Kjaergaard, and E. McMahon Two-dimensional strain - a Doppler-independent ultrasound method for quantitation of regional deformation: validation in vitro and in vivo J Am Soc Echocardiogr 18 2005 1247 1253
101. A.J. Teske, B.W. De Boeck, M. Olimulder, N.H. Prakken, P.A. Doevendans, and M.J. Cramer Echocardiographic assessment of regional right ventricular function: a head-to-head comparison between 2-dimensional and tissue Doppler-derived strain analysis J Am Soc Echocardiogr 21 2008 275 283
102. F. Weidemann, B. Eyskens, F. Jamal, L. Mertens, M. Kowalski, and J. D'Hooge Quantification of regional left and right ventricular radial and longitudinal function in healthy children using ultrasound-based strain rate and strain imaging J Am Soc Echocardiogr 15 2002 20 28
103. S. Urheim, T. Edvardsen, H. Torp, B. Angelsen, and O.A. Smiseth Myocardial strain by Doppler echocardiography. Validation of a new method to quantify regional myocardial function Circulation 102 2000 1158 1164
104. J.T. Marcus, C.T. Gan, J.J. Zwanenburg, A. Boonstra, C.P. Allaart, and M.J. Gotte Interventricular mechanical asynchrony in pulmonary arterial hypertension: left-to-right delay in peak shortening is related to right ventricular overload and left ventricular underfilling J Am Coll Cardiol 51 2008 750 757
105. A. Lopez-Candales, K. Dohi, R. Bazaz, and K. Edelman Relation of right ventricular free wall mechanical delay to right ventricular dysfunction as determined by tissue Doppler imaging Am J Cardiol 96 2005 602 606
106. R. Jurcut, S. Giusca, R. Ticulescu, E. Popa, M.S. Amzulescu, and I. Ghiorghiu Different patterns of adaptation of the right ventricle to pressure overload: a comparison between pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary stenosis J Am Soc Echocardiogr 24 2011 1109 1117
107. Y. Fukuda, H. Tanaka, D. Sugiyama, K. Ryo, T. Onishi, and H. Fukuya Utility of right ventricular free wall speckle-tracking strain for evaluation of right ventricular performance in patients with pulmonary hypertension J Am Soc Echocardiogr 24 2011 1101 1108
108. S. Huez, J.L. Vachiéry, P. Unger, S. Brimioulle, and R. Naeije Tissue Doppler imaging evaluation of cardiac adaptation to severe pulmonary hypertension Am J Cardiol 100 2007 1473 1478
109. A. López-Candales, N. Rajagopalan, B. Gulyasy, K. Edelman, and R. Bazaz Differential strain and velocity generation along the right ventricular free wall in pulmonary hypertension Can J Cardiol 25 2009 e73 e77
110. A. Vitarelli, Y. Conde, E. Cimino, S. Stellato, S. D'Orazio, and I. D'Angeli Assessment of right ventricular function by strain rate imaging in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease Eur Respir J 27 2006 268 275
111. A.C. Borges, F. Knebel, S. Eddicks, A. Panda, S. Schattke, and C. Witt Right ventricular function assessed by two-dimensional strain and tissue Doppler echocardiography in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension and effect of vasodilator therapy Am J Cardiol 98 2006 530 534
112. V. Dambrauskaite, L. Herbots, P. Claus, G. Verleden, D. Van Raemdonck, and M. Delcroix Differential changes in regional right ventricular function before and after a bilateral lung transplantation: an ultrasonic strain and strain rate study J Am Soc Echocardiogr 16 2003 432 436
113. H. Utsunomiya, S. Nakatani, T. Okada, H. Kanzaki, S. Kyotani, and N. Nakanishi A simple method to predict impaired right ventricular performance and disease severity in chronic pulmonary hypertension using strain rate imaging Int J Cardiol 147 2011 88 94
114. B. Pirat, M.L. McCulloch, and W.A. Zoghbi Evaluation of global and regional right ventricular systolic function in patients with pulmonary hypertension using a novel speckle tracking method Am J Cardiol 98 2006 699 704
115. A. D'Andrea, S. Stisi, S. Bellissimo, F. Vigorito, F. Scotto di Uccio, and N. Tozzi Early impairment of myocardial function in systemic sclerosis: non-invasive assessment by Doppler myocardial and strain rate imaging Eur J Echocardiogr 6 2005 407 418
116. S. Puwanant, M. Park, Z.B. Popovic, W.H. Tang, S. Farha, and D. George Ventricular geometry, strain, and rotational mechanics in pulmonary hypertension Circulation 121 2010 259 266
117. T. Shiota 3D echocardiography: evaluation of the right ventricle Curr Opin Cardiol 24 2009 410 414
118. J. Hung, R. Lang, F. Flachskampf, S.K. Shernan, M.L. McCulloch, D.B. Adams ASE 3D echocardiography: a review of the current status and future directions J Am Soc Echocardiogr 20 2007 213 233
119. D'Andrea A, Riegler L, Morra S, Scarafile R, Salerno G, Cocchia R, et al. Right ventricular morphology and function in top-level athletes: a three-dimensional echocardiographic study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. In press.
120. A.S. Gopal, E.O. Chukwu, C.J. Iwuchukwu, A.S. Katz, R.S. Toole, and W. Schapiro Normal values of right ventricular size and function by real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography: comparison with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging J Am Soc Echocardiogr 20 2007 445 455
121. C. Jenkins, J. Chan, K. Bricknell, M. Strudwick, and T.H. Marwick Reproducibility of right ventricular volumes and ejection fraction using real-time three-dimensional echocardiography: comparison with cardiac MRI Chest 131 2007 1844 1851
122. G. Tamborini, D. Brusoni, J.E. Torres Molina, C.A. Galli, A. Maltagliati, and M. Muratori Feasibility of a new generation three-dimensional echocardiography for right ventricular volumetric and functional measurements Am J Cardiol 102 2008 499 505
123. J. Grapsa, D.P. O'Regan, H. Pavlopoulos, G. Durighel, D. Dawson, and P. Nihoyannopoulos Right ventricular remodelling in pulmonary arterial hypertension with three-dimensional echocardiography: comparison with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging Eur J Echocardiogr 11 2010 64 73
124. T. Morikawa, M. Murata, S. Okuda, H. Tsuruta, S. Iwanaga, and M. Murata Quantitative analysis of right ventricular function in patients with pulmonary hypertension using three-dimensional echocardiography and a two-dimensional summation method compared to magnetic resonance imaging Am J Cardiol 107 2011 484 489
125. M. Amaki, S. Nakatani, H. Kanzaki, S. Kyotani, N. Nakanishi, and C. Shigemasa Usefulness of three-dimensional echocardiography in assessing right ventricular function in patients with primary pulmonary hypertension Hypertens Res 32 2009 419 422
126. A. Calcutteea, R. Chung, P. Lindqvist, M. Hodson, and M.Y. Henein Differential right ventricular regional function and the effect of pulmonary hypertension: three-dimensional echo study Heart 97 2011 1004 1011
127. J. Grapsa, J.S. Gibbs, D. Dawson, G. Watson, R. Patni, and T. Athanasiou Morphologic and functional remodeling of the right ventricle in pulmonary hypertension by real time three dimensional echocardiography Am J Cardiol 109 2012 906 913
128. H.W. Farber, and J. Loscalzo Pulmonary arterial hypertension N Engl J Med 351 2004 1655 1665
129. J. Grapsa, J.S. Gibbs, I.Z. Cabrita, G.F. Watson, H. Pavlopoulos, and D. Dawson The association of clinical outcome with right atrial and ventricular remodelling in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension: study with real-time three-dimensional echocardiography Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging 13 2012 666 672
130. R. Sukmawan, N. Watanabe, Y. Ogasawara, Y. Yamaura, K. Yamamoto, and N. Wada Geometric changes of tricuspid valve tenting in tricuspid regurgitation secondary to pulmonary hypertension quantified by novel system with transthoracic real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography J Am Soc Echocardiogr 20 2007 470 476
131. M.M. Hoeper, S.H. Lee, R. Voswinckel, M. Palazzini, X. Jais, and A. Marinelli Complications of right heart catheterization procedures in patients with pulmonary hypertension in experienced centers J Am Coll Cardiol 48 2006 2546 2552
132. S. Rich, E. Kaufmann, and P.S. Levy The effect of high doses of calcium-channel blockers on survival in primary pulmonary hypertension N Engl J Med 327 1992 76 81
133. O. Sitbon, M. Humbert, X. Jais, V. Ioos, A.M. Hamid, and S. Provencher Long-term response to calcium channel blockers in idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension Circulation 111 2005 3105 3111
134. M.C. Post, S. Janssens, F. Van de Werf, and W. Budts Responsiveness to inhaled nitric oxide is a predictor for mid-term survival in adult patients with congenital heart defects and pulmonary arterial hypertension Eur Heart J 25 2004 1651 1656
135. M. D'Alto, E. Romeo, P. Argiento, G. Santoro, B. Sarubbi, and G. Gaio Pulmonary vasoreactivity predicts long-term outcome in patients with Eisenmenger syndrome receiving bosentan therapy Heart 96 2010 1475 1479