Antiplatelet and anticoagulation strategies in the prevention and treatment of ischemic stroke

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 18, Issue 33, 2012, Pages 5261-5272

  Kirshner, Howard S ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiplatelet therapy; Ischemic stroke; Secondary stroke prevention

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; APIXABAN; CILOSTAZOL; CLOPIDOGREL; DABIGATRAN; DIPYRIDAMOLE; OMEPRAZOLE; PRASUGREL; RAMIPRIL; RIVAROXABAN; SIMVASTATIN; TELMISARTAN; TICAGRELOR; TICLOPIDINE; WARFARIN;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE THERAPY; ARTICLE; BLEEDING; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; BRAIN ATHEROSCLEROSIS; BRAIN HEMORRHAGE; BRAIN ISCHEMIA; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CAROTID ARTERY STENTING; CAROTID ENDARTERECTOMY; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; COMPETITIVE INHIBITION; DIABETES CONTROL; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; EXERCISE; FOLLOW UP; GASTROINTESTINAL ABSORPTION; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE REVASCULARIZATION; HEART PROTECTION; HUMAN; HYPERLIPIDEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; LOW DRUG DOSE; MEDICAL CARE; MONOTHERAPY; MUTATIONAL ANALYSIS; PERCUTANEOUS CORONARY INTERVENTION; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK REDUCTION; SECONDARY PREVENTION; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; SMOKING CESSATION; STROKE PATIENT; THROMBOCYTE AGGREGATION INHIBITION; TRANSIENT ISCHEMIC ATTACK;

ANIMALS; ANTICOAGULANTS; COMORBIDITY; ENDOVASCULAR PROCEDURES; HUMANS; ISCHEMIC ATTACK, TRANSIENT; PATIENT SELECTION; PLATELET AGGREGATION INHIBITORS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PRIMARY PREVENTION; RECURRENCE; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; SECONDARY PREVENTION; STROKE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VASCULAR SURGICAL PROCEDURES;

EID: 84870047520     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/138161212803251961     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. American Heart Association/America Stroke Association. Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics, http://www.strokeassociation.org/STROKEORG/AboutStroke/Impact-ofStroke_UCM_310728_Article.jsp Accessed September 23, 2011.
2. Lovett JK, Coull AJ, Rothwell PM. Early risk of recurrence by subtype of ischemic stroke in population-based incidence studies. Neurology 2004; 62: 569-73.
3. Albers GW. Choice of endpoints in antiplatelet trials: which outcomes are most relevant to stroke patients? Neurology 2000; 54: 1022-8.
4. Hardie K, Hankey GJ, Jamrozik K, et al. Ten-year risk of first recurrent stroke and disability after first-ever stroke in the Perth Community Stroke Study. Stroke 2004; 35: 731-5.
5. Vickrey BG, Rector TS, Wickstrom SL, et al. Occurrence of secondary ischemic events among persons with atherosclerotic vascular disease. Stroke 2002; 33: 901-6.
6. Hankey GJ, Jamrozik K, Broadhurst RJ, et al. Five-year survival after first-ever stroke and related prognostic factors in the Perth Community Stroke Study. Stroke 2000; 31: 2080-86.
7. Hartmann A, Rundek T, Mast H, et al. Mortality and causes of death after first ischemic stroke. The Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Neurology 2001; 57: 2000-2005.
8. Dennis MS, Burn JPS, Sandercock PAG, Bamford JM, Wade DT, Warlow CP. Long-term survival after first-ever stroke: the Oxfordshire Community Stroke Project. Stroke 1993; 24: 796-800.
9. Eliasziw M, Kennedy J, Hill MD, et al. Early risk of stroke after a transient ischemic attack in patients with internal carotid artery disease. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Group. CMAJ 2004; 170: 1105-9.
10. Clark TG, Murphy MF, Rothwell PM. Long term risks of stroke, myocardial infarction, and vascular death in low risk patients with a non-recent transient ischaemic attack. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2003; 74: 577-80.
11. Johnston SC, Gress DR, Browner WS, Sidney S. Short-term prognosis after emergency department diagnosis of TIA. JAMA 2000; 284: 2901-6.
12. Rothwell PM, Giles MF, Flossmann E et al. A simple score (ABCD) to identify individuals at high early risk of stroke after transient ischaemic attack. Lancet 2005; 366: 29-36.
13. Johnston SC, Rothwell PM, Nguyen-Huynh MN, et al. Validation and refinement of scores to predict very early stroke risk after transient ischemic attack. Lancet 2007; 369: 283-92.
14. Rothwell PM, Giles MF, Chandratheva A, et al. Effect of urgent treatment of transient ischemic attack and minor stroke on early recurrent stroke (EXPRESS study): a prospective population-based sequential comparison. Lancet 2007; 370: 1432-42.
15. Lavallee PC, Meseguer E, Abboud H, et al. A transient ischaemic attack clinic with round-the-clock access (SOS-TIA): feasibility and effects. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 953-60.
16. Johnston SC, Albers GW, Gorelick PB, et al. National Stroke Association recommendations for systems of care for transient ischemic attack. Ann Neurol 2011; 69: 872-7.
17. Adams HP, Jr., Bendixen BH, Kappelle LJ, Biller J, Love BB, Gordon DL, Marsh EE, 3rd. Classification of subtype of acute ischemic stroke. Definitions for use in a multicenter clinical trial. TOAST. Trial of Org 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment. Stroke 1993; 24: 35-41.
18. Liao JK. Secondary prevention of stroke and transient ischemic attack: is more platelet inhibition the answer? Circulation 2007; 115: 1615-1621.
19. Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, et al, TRITON-TIMI 38 Investigators. Prasugrel versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med 2007; 357: 2001-15.
20. Furie KL, Kasner SE, Adams RJ, et al. Guidelines for the prevention of stroke in patients with stroke or transient ischemic attack: A guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2011; 42: 227-76.
21. Prior PL, Hachinski V, Unsworth K, et al. Comprehensive cardiac rehabilitation for secondary prevention after transient ischemic attack or mild stroke. I: Feasibility and risk factors. Stroke 2011; 42). Sept 22 (Epub ahead of print).
22. Yaggi HK, Concato J, Kernan WN, et al. Obstructive sleep apnea as a risk factor for stroke and death. New Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2034-41.
23. Gorelick PB. Stroke Prevention. Arch Neurol 1995; 52: 347-55.
24. Webb AJ, Rothwell PM. Effect of dose and combination of antihypertensives on interindividual blood pressure variability: a systematic review. Stroke 2011; 42: 2860-5.
25. Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S, Hebert P, et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 2, Short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context. Lancet 1990; 7; 335: 827-38.
26. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Randomised trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressurelowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. Lancet 2001; 358: 1033-41.
27. Schrader J, Luders S, Kulschewski A, et al. The ACCESS study: evaluation of acute candesartan cilexitil therapy in stroke survivors. Stroke 2003; 34: 1699-703.
28. Schrader J, Luders S, Kulschewski A, et al. Morbidity and mortality after stroke, eprosartan compared with nitrendipine for secondary prevention. Principal results of a prospective randomized controlled study (MOSES). Stroke 2005; 36: 1218-26.
29. The ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med 2008; 358: 1547-59.
30. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, et al. Effects of an angiotensinconverting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients: the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 145-53.
31. The ALLHAT officers and coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic. The antihypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment to prevent heart attack trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002; 288: 2981-97.
32. Wright JT, Dunn JK, Cutler JA, et al. Outcomes in hypertensive black and nonblack patients treated with chlorthalidone, amlodipine, and lisinopril. JAMA 2005; 293; 1595-608.
33. Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Weber M, et al. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: the VALUE randomised trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 2022-31.
34. Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, et al. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the Losartan Intervention for Endpoint reduction in hypertension (LIFE): a randomized trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002; 359: 995-1003.
35. Turan TN, Cotsonis G, Lynn MJ, Chaturvedi S, Chimowitz M; Warfarin-Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Disease (WASID) Trial Investigators. Relationship between blood pressure and stroke recurrence in patients with intracranial arterial stenosis. Circulation 2007; 115: 2969-75.
36. Touze E, Coste J, Voicu M, et al. Importance of in-hospital initiation of therapies and therapeutic inertia in secondary stroke prevention. Implementation of prevention after a cerebrovascular event (IMPACT) study. Stroke 2008; 39: 1834-43.
37. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. The JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003; 289: 2560-72.
38. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. Effects of intensive glucose lowering in Type 2 diabetes. New Engl J Med 2008; 38: 2545-59.
39. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001; 285: 2486-95.
40. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group. Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 1994; 344: 1383-9.
41. Pedersen TR, Kjekshus J, Pyorala K, et al. Effect of simvastatin on ischemic signs and symptoms in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Am J Cardiol 1998; 81: 333-5.
42. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, et al, for the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1001-9.
43. Long-term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels. The Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1349-57.
44. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 7-22.
45. Collins R, Armitage J, Parish S, Sleight P, Peto R. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. Effects of cholesterol-lowering with simvastatin on stroke and other major vascular events in 20536 people with cerebrovascular disease or other high-risk conditions. Lancet 2004; 363: 757-67.
46. The Stroke Prevention by Aggressive Reduction in Cholesterol Levels (SPARCL) Investigators. High-dose atorvastatin after stroke or transient ischemic attack. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 549-59.
47. Putaala J, Haapaniemi E, Kastu M, Tatlisumak T, Statins after ischemic stroke of undetetmined etiology in young adults. Neurology 2011; 77: 426-30.
48. Li HF, Zhang X, Zhang Y, et al. Clinical and neuroradiological features of internal watershed infarction and the occlusive diseases of carotid artery system. Neurol Res 2010; 32: 1090-6.
49. Shin DH, Lee PH, Bang OY. Mechanisms of recurrence in subtypes of ischemic stroke: a hospital-based follow-up study. Arch Neurol 2005; 62: 1232-7.
50. Petty GW, Brown RD, Jr., Whisnant JP, Sicks JD, O'Fallon WM, Wiebers DO. Ischemic stroke subtypes: a population-based study of functional outcome, survival, and recurrence. Stroke 2000; 31: 1062-8.
51. Ohira T, Shahar E, Chambless LE, Rosamond WD, Mosley TH, Jr., Folsom AR. Risk factors for ischemic stroke subtypes: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Stroke 2006; 37: 2493-8.
52. Schulz UG, Rothwell PM. Differences in vascular risk factors between etiological subtypes of ischemic stroke: importance of population-based studies. Stroke 2003; 34: 2050-9.
53. Murat Sumer M, Erturk O. Ischemic stroke subtypes: risk factors, functional outcome and recurrence. Neurol Sci 2002; 22: 449-54.
54. Jackson C, Sudlow C. Are lacunar strokes really different? A systematic review of differences in risk factr profiles between lacunar and nonlacunar infarcts. Stroke 2005; 36: 891-904.
55. Suk SH, Sacco RL, Boden-Albala B, et al. Abdominal obesity and risk of ischemic stroke: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Stroke 2003; 34: 1586-92.
56. Tirschwell DL, Smith NL, Heckbert SR, Lemaitre RN, Longstreth WT, Jr., Psaty BM. Association of cholesterol with stroke risk varies in stroke subtypes and patient subgroups. Neurology 2004; 63: 1868-75.
57. North American Symptomatic Carotid Endarterectomy Trial Collaborators. Beneficial effect of carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients with high-grade carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 445-53.
58. Barnett HJM, Taylor DW, Eliasziw M, et al. Benefit of carotid endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic moderate or severe stenosis. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1415-25.
59. European Carotid Surgery Trialists' Collaborative Group. MRC European carotid surgery trial: interim results for symptomatic patients with severe (70-99%) or with mild (0-29%) carotid stenosis. Lancet 1991; 337: 1235-43.
60. Mayberg MR, Wilson SE, Yatsu F, et al. Carotid endarterectomy and prevention of cerebral ischemia in symptomatic carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 1991; 266: 3289-94.
61. Yadav JS, Wholey MH, Kuntz RE, et al. Protected carotid-artery stenting versus endarterectomy in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1493-501.
62. Ringleb PA, Allenberg J, Bruckmann H, et al. 30 Day results from the SPACE trial of stent-protected angioplasty versus carotid endarterectomy in symptomatic patients: a randomized non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2006; 368: 1239-47.
63. Mas JL, Chatellier G, Beyssen B, et al. Endarterectomy versus stenting in patients with symptomatic severe carotid stenosis. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 1660-71.
64. International Carotid Stenting Study Investigators. Carotid artery stenting compared with endarterectomy in patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis (International Carotid Stenting Study): an interim analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2010; 375: 985-97.
65. Brott TG, Hobson RW, Howard G, et al. Stenting versus endarterectomy for treatment of carotid-artery stenosis. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 11-23.
66. Executive Committee for the Asymptomatic Carotid Atherosclerosis Study. Endarterectomy for asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis. JAMA 1995; 273: 1421-8.
67. MRC Asymptomatic Carotid Surgery Trial (ACST) Collaborative Group. Prevention of disabling and fatal strokes by successful carotid endarterectomy in patients without recent neurological symptoms: randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 363: 1491-502.
68. Topakian R, King A, Kwon SU, et al, for the ACES Investigators. Ultrasonic plaque echolucency and emboli signals predict stroke in asymptomatic carotid stenosis. Neurology 2011; 77: 751-8.
69. Stayman AN, Nogueira RG, Gupta R. A systematic review of stenting and angioplasty of symptomatic extracranial vertebral artery stenosis. Stroke 2011 42: 2212-6.
70. Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ, Howlett-Smith H, et al. Warfarin-Aspirin Symptomatic Intracranial Disease Trial Investigators. Comparison of warfarin and aspirin for symptomatic intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1305-16.
71. Chimowitz MI, Lynn MJ, Derdeyn CP, et al. SAMMPRIS Trial Investigators. Stenting versus aggressive medical therapy for intracranial arterial stenosis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 993-1003.
72. Petersen P, Boysen G, Godtfredsen J, et al. Placebo-controlled, randomised trial of warfarin and aspirin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in chronic atrial fibrillation: the Copenhagen AFASAK study. Lancet 1989; 1: 175-9.
73. Stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation study group investigators: Preliminary report of the stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation study. N Engl J Med 1990; 322: 863-8. Final report: Circulation 1991; 84: 527-39.
74. The Boston area anticoagulation trial for atrial fibrillation investigators: The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 1990; 323: 1505-11.
75. Connolly SJ, Laupacis A, Gent M, et al. Canadian atrial fibrillation anticoagulation (CAFA) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 18: 349-65.
76. Ezekowitz MD, Bridgers SL, James KE, et al. Warfarin in the prevention of stroke associated with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 1992; 327: 1406-12.
77. European atrial fibrillation trial study group. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. Lancet 1993; 342: 1255-62.
78. Rietbrock S, Heeley E, Plumb J, et al. Chronic atrial fibrillation: Incidence, prevalence, and prediction of stroke using the Congestive heart failure, Hypertension, Age >75, Diabetes mellitus, and prior Stroke or transient ischemic attack (CHADS2) risk stratification scheme. Am Heart J 2008; 156: 57-64.
79. Connolly SJ, Ezekowitz MD, Yusuf S, et al. Dabigatran versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1139-51.
80. Beasley BN, Unger EF, Temple R. Anticoagulant options-Why the FDA approved a higher but not a lower dose of dabigatran. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1788-90.
81. Patel MR, Mahaffey KW, Garg J, et al. Rivaroxaban versus warfarin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Medicine 2011; 365: 883-91.
82. Granger CB, Alexander JH, McMurray JJV, et al. Apixaban versus warfarin in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Medicine 2011; 365: 981-92.
83. Connolly SJ, Eikelboom J, Joyner C, et al. Apixiban in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Medicine 2011; 364: 806-17.
84. ACTIVE Writing Group of the Active Investigators. Clopidogrel plus aspirin versus oral anticoagulation for atrial fibrillation in the Atrial fibrillation Clopidogrel Trial with Irbisartan for prevention of Vascular Events (ACTIVE W): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367; 1903-12.
85. The ACTIVE investigators. Effect of clopidogrel added to aspirin in patients with atrial fibrillation. New Engl J Med 2009; 360: 2066-78.
86. SPIRIT Study Group. A randomized trial of anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischemia of presumed arterial origin. The Stroke Prevention in Reversible Ischemia Trial. Ann Neurol 1997; 42: 857-65.
87. Halkes PH, van Gijn J, Kappelle LJ, Koudstaal PJ, Algra A. ESPRIT Study Group Medium intensity oral anticoagulants versus aspirin after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2007; 6: 115-24.
88. Mohr JP, Thompson JL, Lazar RM, et al. Warfarin-aspirin recurrent stroke study group. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1444-51.
89. Antiplatelet Trialists' Collaboration. Collaborative overview of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy--I: Prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke by prolonged antiplatelet therapy in various categories of patients. BMJ. 1994; 308: 81-106.
90. Antithrombotic Trialists' Collaboration. Collaborative metaanalysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002; 324: 71-86.
91. Algra A, van Gijn J. Aspirin at any dose above 30 mg offers only modest protection after cerebral ischaemia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1996; 60: 197-9.
92. Algra A, van Gijn J. Cumulative meta-analysis of aspirin efficacy after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999; 66: 255.
93. Farrell B, Godwin J, Richards S, Warlow C. The United Kingdom transient ischaemic attack (UK-TIA) aspirin trial: final results. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54: 1044-54.
94. Dutch TIA Trial Study Group. A comparison of two doses of aspirin (30 mg vs. 283 mg a day) in patients after a transient ischemic attack or minor ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1261-6.
95. CAPRIE Steering Committee. A randomised, blinded, trial of clopidogrel versus aspirin in patients at risk of ischaemic events (CAPRIE). Lancet 1996; 348: 1329-39.
96. Clopidogrel in Unstable Angina to Prevent Recurrent Events (CURE) Trial Investigators. Effects of clopidogrel in addition to aspirin in patients with acute coronary syndromes without ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 494-502.
97. Sabatine MS, Cannon CP, Gibson CM, et al, for the CLARITY-TIMI 28 Investigators. Addition of clopidogrel to aspirin and fibrinolytic therapy for myocardial infarction with ST-segment elevation. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1179-89.
98. Chen Z, COMMIT collaborative group. Addition of clopidogrel to aspirin in 45,852 patients with acute myocardial infarction: randomized placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1607-21.
99. Steinhubl SR, Berger PB, Mann JT 3rd, et al, CREDO Investigators. Clopidogrel for the Reduction of Events During Observation. Early and sustained dual oral antiplatelet therapy following percutaneous coronary intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 288: 2411-20.
100. Diener HC, Bogousslavsky J, Brass LM, et al. Aspirin and clopidogrel compared with clopidogrel alone after recent ischaemic stroke or transient ischaemic attack in high-risk patients (MATCH): randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 331-7.
101. Bhatt DL, Fox KA, Hacke W, et al., CHARISMA Investigators. Clopidogrel and aspirin versus aspirin alone for the prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 1706-17.
102. Bhatt DL, Flather MD, Hacke W, et al. Patients with prior myocardial infarction, stroke, or symptomatic peripheral arterial disease in the CHARISMA trial. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 1982-8.
103. Benavente OR, White CL, Pearce L, et al. The Secondary Prevention of Small Subcortical Strokes (SPS3) study. Int J Stroke 2011; 6(2): 164-75.
104. Kennedy J, Hill MD, Ryckborst KJ, et al. Fast assessment of stroke and transient ischaemic attack to prevent early recurrence (FASTER): a randomized controlled pilot trial. Lancet Neurology 2007; 6: 961-9.
105. Wang Y, Johnston SC; CHANCE Investigators. Rationale and design of a randomized, double-blind trial comparing the effects of a 3-month clopidogrel-aspirin regimen versus aspirin alone for the treatment of high-risk patients with acute nondisabling cerebrovascular event. Am Heart J 2010; 160: 344-7.
106. Sacco RL, Diener HC, Yusuf S, et al. Aspirin and extended-release dipyridamole versus clopidogrel for recurrent stroke. N Engl J Med 2008; 359(12): 1238-51.
107. Gilard M, Arnaud B, Cornily JC, et al. Influence of omeprazole on the antiplatelet action of clopidogrel associated with aspirin. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51; 256-60.
108. Bhatt DL, Cryer BL, Contant CF, et al. Clopidogrel with or without omeprazole in coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 1909-17.
109. O'Donoghue ML, Braunwald E, Antman EM, et al. Pharmacodynamic effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel and prasugrel with or without a proton-pump inhibitor; an analysis of two randomized trials. Lancet 2009; 374: 989-97.
110. Cayla G, Hulot J-S, O'Connor SA, et al. Clinical, angiographic, and genetic factors associated with early coronary stent thrombosis. JAMA 2011; 306: 1765-74.
111. Charlot M, Grove EL, Hansen PR, et al. Proton pump inhibitor use and risk of adverse cardiovascular events in aspirin treated patients with first time myocardial infarction: nationwide propensity score matched study. BMJ 2011; 342: d2690.
112. Wurtz M, Grove EL, Kristensen SD, Hvas AM. The antiplatelet effect of aspirin is reduced by proton pump inhibitors in patients with coronary artery disease. Jeart 2010; 96: 368-71.
113. Mega JL, Simon T, Collet J-P, et al. Reduced-function CYP2C19 genotype and risk of adverse clinical outcomes amont patients treated with clopidogrel predominantly for PCI. A meta-analysis. JAMA 2010; 304: 1821-30.
114. Cayla G, Hulot JS, O'Connor SA, et al. Clinical, angiographic, and genetic factors associated with early coronary stent thrombosis. JAMA 2011; 306: 1765-74.
115. Pare G, Mehta SR, Yusuf S, et al. Effects of CYP2C19 genotype on outcomes of clopidogrel treatment. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 1704-14.
116. Bauer T, Bouman HJ, van Werkum JW, et al. Impact of CYP2C19 variant genotypes on clinical efficacy of antiplatelet treatment with clopidogrel: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2011; 343: d4588.
117. Breet NJ, van Werkum JW, Bouman HJ, et al. Comparison of platelet function tests in predicting clinical outcome in patients undergoing coronary stent implantation. JAMA 2010; 303: 754-62.
118. Price MJ, Berger PB, Teirstein PS, et al. Standardvs high-dose clopidogrel based on platelet function testing after percutaneous coronary intervention. The GRAVITAS randomized trial. JAMA 2011; 305: 1097-105.
119. Parodi G, Marcucci R, Valenti R, et al. High residual platelet reactivity after clopidogrel loading and long-term cardiovascular events among patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing PCI. JAMA 2011; 306: 1215-23.
120. Holmes MV, Perel P, Shah T, et al. CYP2C19 genotype, clopidogrel metabolism, platelet function, and cardiovascular events. A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2011; 306: 2704-14.
121. Lee DH, Arat A, Morsi H, et al. Dual antiplatelet therapy monitoring for neurointerventional procedures using a point-of-care platelet function test: a single-center experience. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2008; 29: 1389-94.
122. Mega JL, Hochhollzer W, Frelinger, AL, et al. Dosing clopidogrel based on CYP2C19 genotype and the effect on platelet reactivity in patients with stable cardiovascular disease. JAMA 2011; 306: 2221-8.
123. Diener HC, Cunha L, Forbes C, et al. European Stroke Prevention Study, 2: dipyridamole and acetylsalicylic acid in the secondary prevention of stroke. J Neurol Sci 1996; 143: 1-13.
124. Halkes PH, van Gijn J, Kappelle LJ, et al. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomized controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367: 1665-73.
125. Shinohara Y, Katayama Y, Uchiyama S, et al. Cilostazol for prevention of secondary stroke (CSPS 2): an aspirin-controlled, double-blind, randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9: 959-68.
126. Wallentin L, Becker RC, Budaj A, et al. Ticagrelor versus clopidogrel in patients with acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2009; 361: 1045-57.