Landscape evolution and engineering geology: Results from IAEG Commission 22

Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment

Volumn 71, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 605-636

  Griffiths, James S ^a   Stokes, Martin ^a   Stead, Doug ^b   Giles, David ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PLYMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

^b SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PORTSMOUTH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Geohazard assessment; Ground model; IAEG Commission 22; Landscape evolution

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE MODELS; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; ENGINEERING GEOLOGY; HAZARDS; LANDFORMS; RISK ASSESSMENT;

CONSTRUCTION CONTRACT; CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS; ENGINEERING STRUCTURES; FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT; GEO HAZARDS; GROUND MODELS; IAEG COMMISSION 22; LANDSCAPE EVOLUTIONS;

COST ENGINEERING;

ENGINEERING GEOLOGY; GEOMORPHOLOGY; HAZARD ASSESSMENT; LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION; NUMERICAL MODEL;

EID: 84869166068     PISSN: 14359529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10064-012-0434-7     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. ABI (Association of British Insurers) (2004) Review of planning policy guidance note 25: development and flood risk. Consultation Response, ABI, London.
2. Alexander D (1993) Natural Disasters. UCL Press, London.
3. Alexander D (2000) Confronting catastrophe: new perspectives on natural disasters. Terra Publishing, Harpenden.
4. Álvarez AJ (2009) Mapa de Caudales Máximos en Espana. http://www. marm. es/es/agua/publicaciones/Mapa_caudales_maximos_Espana_tcm7-28761. pdf. Accessed 7 Aug 2009.
5. Anderson JGC, Trigg CF (1976) Case-histories in engineering geology. Elk Science, London, p 204.
6. Baynes F (2010) Sources of geotechnical risk. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 43: 321-331.
7. Baynes F, Fookes PG, Kennedy JF (2005) Total engineering geology approach to applied railways in the Pilbara, Western Australia. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol Environ 64: 67-94.
8. Beaumont C, Kooi H, Willett S (2000) Coupled-surface process models with applications to rifted margins and collisional orogens. In: Summerfield MA (ed) Geomorphology and global tectonics. Wiley, Chichester, pp 255-281.
9. Bell FG (2003) Geological hazards: their assessment, avoidance and mitigation. Taylor Francis, London.
10. Bennett MR, Doyle P (1997) Environmental geology. Wiley, Chichester.
11. Berz G (1990) Natural disasters and insurance/reinsurance. UNDRO News, pp 18-19.
12. Beyer PJ (ed) (2005) Dams and geomorphology. Special issue, Geomorphology 71: 262.
13. Bishop P (2008) Tectonic and related landforms. In: Burt TP, Chorley RJ, Brunsden D, Cox NJ, Goudie AS (eds) The history of the study of landforms. The Geological Society, London, pp 55-105.
14. Blair Jr RW (1986) Karst landforms and lakes. In: Short NM, Blair Jr RW (eds) Geomorphology from space, chap 7. NASA, Huston. http://disc. sci. gsfs. nasa. gov/geomorphology/. Accessed 27 Jul 2011.
15. Bloom AL (1986) Coastal landforms. In: Short NM, Blair RW Jr (eds) Geomorphology from space, chapter 6. NASA, Huston. http://disc. sci. gsfs. nasa. gov/geomorphology/. Accessed 27 Jul 2011.
16. Bonilla MG (1991) Faulting and seismic activity. In: Kiersch GA (ed) The heritage of engineering geology: the first hundred years, centennial special, vol 3. Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp 251-264.
17. Braun J, van der Beek P (2004) Evolution of passive margin escarpments: what can we learn from low-temperature thermochronology? J Geophys Res 109: F04009.
18. Brunsden D (2002) Geomorphological roulette for engineers and planners: some insights into an old game. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 35: 101-142.
19. Brunsden D, Doornkamp JC, Fookes PG, Jones DKC, Kelly JMH (1975) Large-scale geomorphological mapping in highway engineering design. Q J Eng Geol 8: 227-253.
20. Bu{double acute}del J (1948) Das system der klimatischen geomorphologie. Verhandlungen Deutscher Geographentag 27: 65-100.
21. Bu{double acute}del J (1982) Climatic geomorphology. Princetown University Press, Princetown.
22. Burt TP, Chorley RJ, Brunsden D, Cox NJ, Goudie AS (eds) (2008) The history of the study of landforms. The Geological Society, London.
23. Chapman D (1999) Natural hazards. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
24. Chorley RJ (1965) A re-evaluation of the geomorphic system of W. M. Davis. In: Chorley RJ, Hagett P (eds) Frontiers in geographical teaching. Methuen, London, pp 21-38.
25. Chorley RJ, Kennedy BA (1971) Physical geography: a systems approach. Prentice-Hall, London.
26. Chorley RJ, Schumm SA, Sugden DE (1984) Geomorphology. Methuen, London.
27. Christian JT (2007) Lessons from Hurricane Katrina. The Bridge 37(1): 5-11.
28. CIRIA (1978) Tunnelling-improved contract practices. Construction Industry Research and Information Association, Report 79, p 70.
29. Clayton CRI (2001) Managing geotechnical risk: improving productivity in UK building and construction. Thomas Telford, London.
30. Cluff LS (2007) Effects of the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake and Indian Ocean tsunami in Aceh Province. The Bridge 37(1): 12-16.
31. Cockburn HAP, Summerfield MA (2004) Geomorphological applications of cosmogenic isotope analysis. Prog Phys Geogr 28: 1-42.
32. Cooke RU, Brunsden D, Doornkamp JC, Jones DKC (1982) Urban geomorphology in drylands. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
33. Croot D, Griffiths JS (2001) Engineering geological significance of relict periglacial activity in South and East Devon. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 34: 269-281.
34. Doornkamp JC, Brunsden D, Jones DKC, Cooke RU, Bush PR (1979) Rapid geomorphological assessments for engineering. Q J Eng Geol 12: 189-204.
35. Edmonds CN (2001) Subsidence hazards in Berkshire in areas underlain by chalk karst. In: Griffiths JS (ed) Land surface evaluation for engineering practice. Geol Soc Eng Geol Special Pub 18: 97-106.
36. Ehlig PL (1987) The Portuguese bend landslide stabilization project. American Association of Petroleum Geologists Field Guide, California.
37. Embleton C, Thornes JB (eds) (1979) Process in geomorphology. Edward Arnold, London.
38. Everett JR, Morisawa M, Short NM (1986) Tectonic landforms. In: Short NM, Blair RW Jr (eds) Geomorphology from space, chapter 2. NASA, Huston. http://disc. sci. gsfs. nasa. gov/geomorphology/. Accessed 27 Jul 2011.
39. Fagan BM (2001) The Little Ice Age: how climate made history 1033-1850. Basic Books, New York.
40. Fookes PG (1997) Geology for engineers: the geological model, prediction and performance. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 38: 231-284.
41. Fookes PG, Baynes F (2008) Successful use of the total geology approach; using reference conditions for the design and construction of heavy duty railways in the Pilbara, Western Australia. Ground Eng, March, pp 39-45.
42. Fookes PG, Dale SG (1992) Comparison of interpretation of a major landslide at an earthfill dam site in Papua New Guinea. Q J Eng Geol 24: 313-330.
43. Fookes PG, Baynes FJ, Hutchinson JN (2000) Total geological history: a model approach to the anticipation, observation and understanding on site conditions. GeoEng 2000, an international conference on geotechnical & geological engineering, Melbourne 1: 370-460.
44. Fookes PG, Baynes FJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) Total geological history: a model approach to understanding site ground conditions. Ground Eng 34(3): 42-47.
45. Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) (2005) Geomorphology for engineers. Whittles, Caithness.
46. Fookes PG, Lee EM, Griffiths JS (2007) Engineering geomorphology: theory and practice. Whittles, Caithness.
47. Gerrard J (2008) Geology and Landforms. In: Burt TP, Chorley RJ, Brunsden D, Cox NJ, Goudie AS (eds) The history of the study of landforms. The Geological Society, London, pp 13-54.
48. Gischig VS (2011) Kinematics and failure mechanisms of the Randa rock slope instability (Switzerland). Ph. D. thesis, ETH Zurich.
49. Griffiths JS (ed) (2001) Land surface evaluation for engineering practice. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, vol 18, Geological Society, London.
50. Griffiths JS (2010) Investigating the role of landscape evolution in determining ground conditions for engineering: examples from South-West England. Geosci South-West Engl 12(3): 177-187.
51. Griffiths JS, Culshaw MG (2004) Seeking the research frontiers for UK engineering geology. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 37: 317-325.
52. Griffiths JS, Marsh A (1986) BS5930: The role of geomorphological and geological techniques in a preliminary site investigation. In: Hawkins AB (ed) Site investigation practice: assessing BS5930, Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, vol 2, pp 261-267.
53. Griffiths JS, Stokes M (2008) Engineering geomorphological input to ground models: an approach based on Earth systems. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 41: 73-91.
54. Griffiths JS, Whitworth M (2012) Engineering geomorphology of landslides. In: Clague JJ, Stead D (eds) Landslides: types, mechanism and modeling. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 172-186.
55. Griffiths JS, Hutchinson JN, Brunsden D, Petley DJ, Fookes PG (2004) The reactivation of a landslide during the construction of the Ok Ma tailings dam, Papua New Guinea. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 37: 173-186.
56. Gumbel EJ (1967) Extreme value analysis of hydrologic data. Proceedings of hydrology symposium no. 5 on statistical methods in hydrology, 24-25th Feb 1966, McGill University, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources of Canada, Ottawa, pp 147-169.
57. Gutiérrez Elorza M (2005) Climatic geomorphology. Developments in earth surface process, vol 8, English Translation, Elsevier, Rotterdam.
58. Hall AP, Griffiths JS (1998) A possible failure mechanism for the 1575 a. d. 'Wonder' landslide. East Midland Geographer, 21/22. Essays in honour of John Griggs and John Doornkamp, pp 92-105.
59. Hall JW, Cruikshank IC, Godfrey PS (2001) Software-supported risk management for the construction industry. Proc Inst Civil Eng: Civil Eng 144: 42-48.
60. Harvey AM, Miller SY, Wells SG (1995) Quaternary soil and river terrace sequences in the Aguas/Feos river systems: Sorbas basin, southeast Spain. In: Lewin J, MacKlin MG, Woodward JC (eds) Mediterranean Quaternary river environments. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 263-281.
61. Haslett SK (2000) Coastal systems. Routledge, London.
62. Health and Safety Executive (2009) ALARP suite of guidance. http://www. hse. gov. uk/risk/theory/alarp. htm. Accessed 27 Jan 2012.
63. Hearn GJ (ed) (2011) Slope engineering for mountain roads, vol 24. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, London.
64. Hearn GJ, Hart AB (2011) Geomorphological contributions to landslide risk assessment: theory and practice. In: Smith MJ, Paron P, Griffiths JS (eds) Geomorphological mapping: theory and practice, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 107-148.
65. Ho HY, King JP, Wallace MI (2006) A basic guide to air photo interpretation in Hong Kong. Applied Geoscience Centre, Hong Kong, p 115.
66. Hooke WH (2007) Engineering for the threat of natural disasters. The Bridge 37(1): 3-4.
67. Hutchinson JN (1991) Theme lecture: periglacial and slope processes. In: Forster A, Culshaw MG, Cripps JC, Little JA, Moon CF (eds) Quaternary engineering geology, Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, vol 7, pp 283-331.
68. Hutchinson JN (2001) Reading the ground: morphology and geology in site appraisal. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 34: 7-50.
69. International Centre for Geohazards (2012) http://www. geohazards. no/. Accessed 25 Jan 2012.
70. IPCC (2007a) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
71. IPCC (2007b) Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptations and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
72. Jackson LE (2002) Landslides and landscape evolution in the Rocky Mountains and adjacent Foothills area, southwestern Alberta, Canada. In: Evans SG, DeGraff JV (eds) Catastrophic landslides: effects, occurrence and mechanisms, vol XV. Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology, Boulder, Colorado, pp 325-344.
73. James LB, Kiersch GA (1991) Failures of engineering works. In: Kiersch GA (ed) The heritage of engineering geology: the first hundred years, chapter 22, Centennial Special vol 3, Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp 479-516.
74. Jones DKC, Lee EM (1994) Landsliding in Great Britain. HMSO Publications Centre, London.
75. Jongmans D, Biève G, Renalier F, Schwartz S, Beaurez N, Orengo Y (2009) Geophysical investigations of a large landslide in glaciolacustrine clays in the Triéves area (French Alps). Eng Geol 109: 45-56.
76. Julian M, Anthony E (1996) Aspects of landslide activity in the Mercantour Massif and the French Riviera, S. E France. Geomorphology 15: 275-289.
77. Keller EA, Blodgett RH (2006) Natural hazards. Pearson Education Ltd, London.
78. Kemeny J (2003) The time-dependent reduction of sliding cohesion due to rock bridges along discontinuities: a fracture mechanics approach. Rock Mech Rock Eng 36(1): 27-38.
79. Kirchner J, Finkel RC, Riebe C, Granger DE, Clayton JL, King JG, Megahan WF (2001) Mountain erosion over 10 yr., 10 k. y., and 10 m. y. timescales. Geology 29: 591-594.
80. Kong WK (2002) Risk assessment of slopes. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 35: 213-222.
81. Koppen W (1936) Das geographisca system de Klimate. In: Ko{double acute}ppen W, Geiger G (eds) Handbuch der Klimatologie, C. Gebr, Borntraeger, pp 1-44.
82. Lane RGT (1983) Seismicity and dam design. International Commission on Large Dams, vol 46, Bulletin.
83. Lee EM, Charman JH (2005) Soil erosion. In: Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) Geomorphology for engineers. Whittles, Caithness, pp 287-317.
84. Lee EM, Jones DKC (2004) Landslide risk assessment. Thomas Telford, London.
85. Lee EM, Moore R, McInnes RG (1998) Assessment of the probability of landslides reactivation: Isle of Wight Undercliff. In: Moore D, Hungr O (eds) Engineering geology: the view from the Pacific rim, Balkema, Amsterdam, pp 1315-1321.
86. Linden KV (1989) The Portuguese Bend landslide. Eng Geol 27: 301-373.
87. Lucas HC, Robinson VK (1995) Modelling of rising groundwater levels in the Chalk aquifer of the London Basin. Q J Eng Geol 28(Suppl 1): S51-S62.
88. Matthews J, Briffa KR (2005) The Little Ice Age: re-evaluation of an evolving concept. Geografiska Annaler 87A: 17-36.
89. Maund JG, Eddlestone M (eds) (1998) Geohazards in engineering geology, vol 15. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, London.
90. Mayne PW, Christopher BR, Berg RR, DeJong J (2002) Sub-surface investigations-geotechnical site characterization, publication no. FHWA NHI-01-031, National Highway Institute, Federal Highway Administration, Washington DC.
91. McCall GJH, Laming JC, Scott SC (eds) (1992) Geohazards. Chapman & Hall, London.
92. McColl ST, Davies TRH, McSaveney MJ (2010) Glacier retreat and rock-slope stability: debunking debuttressing. In: Williams AL, Pinches GM, Chin CY, McMorran TJ, Massey CI (eds) Geologically active, Press, Leiden, pp 467-474.
93. Merriman PA, Browitt CWA (1993) Natural disasters: protecting vulnerable communities. Thomas Telford, London.
94. Moore RJ, Clark AR, Lee EM (1998) Coastal cliff behaviour and management: Blackgang, Isle of Wight. In: Maund JG, Eddleston M (eds) Geohazards in engineering geology, vol 15. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, London, pp 49-60.
95. Muir Wood A (2004) Ahead of the face. 5th Harding Memorial Lecture held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, 15 Apr 2004, The British Tunnelling Society, p 20.
96. Nathanail J, Banks V (2009) Climate change: implications for engineering geology practice. In: Culshaw MG, Reeves HJ, Jefferson I, Spink TW (eds) Engineering geology for tomorrow's cities, vol 22. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, pp 65-82.
97. Nicholson D, Tse C-M, Penny C (eds) (1999) The observational method in ground engineering: principles and applications. Thomas Telford, London.
98. Orford J (2005) Coastal environments. In: Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) Geomorphology for engineers, chapter 21. Whittles, Caithness, pp 576-602.
99. Pantelides L (2010) An alternative rock mass classification system for rock slopes. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol Environ 69: 29-39.
100. Peel MC, Finlayson BL, McMahon TA (2007) Updated world map of the Ko{double acute}ppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol Earth Sys Sci 11: 1633-1644.
101. Peltier LC (1950) The geographical cycle in periglacial regions as it is related to climatic geomorphology. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 40: 214-236.
102. Ransome FL (1928) Geology of the St Francis dam site. Econ Geol 23: 558-563.
103. Rowlands KA, Jones LD, Whitworth M (2003) Landslide scanning: a new look at an old problem. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 36: 155-157.
104. Royse KR, Rutter HK, Entwisle DC (2009) Property attribution of 3D geological models in the Thames Gateway, London; new ways of visualizing geoscientific information. Bull Int Assoc Eng Geol Environ 68: 1-16.
105. Scholey GK (2004) Impact of eolian sand hazards on desert pipelines. In: Sweeney M (ed) Terrain and geohazard challenges facing onshore oil and gas pipelines. Thomas Telford, London, pp 498-511.
106. Schuster RL, Mullineaux DR (1991) Volcanic activity. In: Kiersch GA (ed) The heritage of engineering geology: the first hundred years, Centennial Special vol 3. Geological Society of America, Boulder, pp 233-250.
107. Short NM, Bloom AL (1986) Volcanic landforms. In: Short NM, Blair Jr RW (eds) Geomorphology from space, chap 3. NASA, Huston. http://disc. sci. gsfs. nasa. gov/geomorphology/. Accessed 27 Jul 2011.
108. Silvers K, Griffiths JS (2009) Landslides affecting the Vía Interoceánica, East of Quito, Ecuador. In: Culshaw M, Reeves K, Jefferson I, Spink T (eds) Engineering geology for tomorrow's cities, vol 2. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, London, CC-ROM paper 234.
109. Simons N, Menzies B, Matthews M (2002) A short course in geotechnical site investigation. Thomas Telford, London.
110. Sinadinovski C (2006) The event of 26th of December 2004-the biggest earthquake in the world in the last 40 years. Bull Earthq Eng 4(2): 131-139.
111. Skempton AW, Vaughan PR (1993) The failure of the Carsington dam. Geotechnique 43: 151-173.
112. Skempton AW, Weeks AG (1976) The Quaternary history of the Lower Greensand escarpment and Weald Clay vale near Sevenoaks, Kent. Philos Trans Royal Soc London 283A: 493-526.
113. Smith K, Petley DN (2009) Environmental hazards, assessing risk and reducing disaster, 5th edn. Routledge, London.
114. Smith M, Paron P, Griffiths JS (eds) (2011) Geomorphological mapping: methods and applications. Developments in Earth Sciences, vol 15. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
115. Somerville G (2003) The design life of structures. Blackie, London.
116. Stead D, Coggan JS, Eberhardt E (2004) Realistic simulation of rock slope failure mechanisms: the need to incorporate principles of fracture mechanics. SINOROCK 2004. Spec Publ Int J Rock Mech 41: 563-568.
117. Stoddart DR (1969) Climatic geomorphology: review and reassessment. Geography 1: 159-222.
118. Stokes MR, Griffiths JS, Mather AE (2012) Palaeoflood hydrology of Quaternary coarse grained river terrace landforms (Río Almanzora, SE Spain). Geomorphology 149-150: 11-26.
119. Summerfield MA (1994) Global geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester.
120. Summerfield MA (ed) (2000) Geomorphology and global tectonics. Wiley, Chichester.
121. Summerfield MA (2005a) The changing landscape of geomorphology. Earth Surf Proc Land 30: 779-781.
122. Summerfield MA (2005b) A tale of two scales, or the two geomorphologies. Trans Inst Br Geogr NS30: 402-415.
123. Symons IF, Booth AI (1971) Investigation of the stability of earthwork construction on the original line of the Sevenoaks by-pass, Kent. Road Research Laboratory Report, LR 293, Department of Transport, Crowthorne.
124. Thornes JB (1974) The rain in Spain. Geogr Mag 46(7): 339-343.
125. Thornes JB, Brunsden D (1977) Geomorphology and time. Methuen, London.
126. Tricart J (1974) Structural geomorphology. Longman, London.
127. Tricart J, Cailleux A (1972) Introduction to climatic geomorphology. Longman, London.
128. Trudgill ST (1985) Limestone geomorphology. Longman, London.
129. Trudgill ST (2008) Limestone landforms 1890-1965. In: Burt TP, Chorley RJ, Brunsden D, Cox NJ, Goudie AS (eds) The history of the study of landforms. The Geological Society, London, pp 107-125.
130. Turner AK (2003) Definition of modelling technologies. In: MS Rosenbaum, AK Turner (eds) New paradigms in subsurface prediction, chapter 3. Springer, Berlin, p 397.
131. Twidale CR (1971) Structural landforms. Australian National University Press, Canberra.
132. Tyrrell AP, Lake LM, Parsons AW (1983) An investigation of the extra costs arising on highway contracts. Report SR 814. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne, p 20.
133. UNEP (2007) The fourth global environment outlook-environment for development (GEO-4). United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.
134. Walker HJ (2008) Coastal landforms. In: Burt TP, Chorley RJ, Brunsden D, Cox NJ, Goudie AS (eds) The history of the study of landforms. The Geological Society, London, pp 803-862.
135. Waltham AC (2005a) Volcanic landforms. In: Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) Geomorphology for engineers. Whittles, Caithness, pp 633-661.
136. Waltham AC (2005b) Karst terrains. In: Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) Geomorphology for Engineers, chapter 24. Whittles, Caithness, pp 662-687.
137. Waltham AC (2005c) Subsidence. In: Fookes PG, Lee EM, Milligan G (eds) Geomorphology for engineers, chapter 12. Whittles, Caithness, pp 318-342.
138. Waltham AC, Fookes PG (2003) Engineering classification of karst ground conditions. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 36: 101-118.
139. Watson A, Moore D, Stewart T (2004) Temperature influence on rock slope movements at Checkerboard Creek. Proceedings of the ninth international symposium on landslides, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 2: 1293-1298.
140. Whipple KX (2001) Fluvial landscape response time: how plausible is steady-state denudation? Am J Sci 301: 313-325.
141. Whitworth MCZ, Giles DP, Murphy W (2005) Airborne remote sensing for landslide hazard assessment: a case study on the Jurassic escarpment slopes of Worcestershire, UK. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol 38: 285-300.
142. Whitworth MRZ, Griffiths JS, Lee EM (2009) Evaluating risk in a rural environment: a case study; Sorbas SE Spain. In: Culshaw MG, Jefferson I, Reeves H, Spink T (eds) 'Engineering geology of tomorrow's cities', vol 22. Geological Society Engineering Geology Special Publication, London, CD-ROM insert paper 535.
143. Wiley AJ (1928) Causes leading to the failure of the St Francis dam. State Printing Office, Sacramento.
144. Wilkinson B (1985) Rising groundwater levels in London and possible effects on engineering structures. Hydrogeology in the service of man, memoires of the international association of hydrogeology, Cambridge, pp 145-157.
145. Wolman MG, Gerson R (1978) Relative scales of time and effectiveness of climate in watershed geomorphology. Earth Surf Processes 3: 189-208.
146. Wolman MG, Miller JP (1960) Magnitude and frequency of forces in geomorphic processes. J Geol 68: 54-74.