Engineering classification of karst ground conditions

Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology

Volumn 36, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 101-118

  Waltham, A C ^a   Fookes, P G ^b  

^a NOTTINGHAM TRENT UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b Lafonia   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Classification; Geohazards; Gypsum; Karst; Limestone

Indexed keywords

DISSOLUTION; GYPSUM; LIMESTONE; MORPHOLOGY; WATER;

GEOHAZARDS;

HYDROGEOLOGY;

CLASSIFICATION; ENGINEERING GEOLOGY; GROUND CONDITIONS; HAZARD ASSESSMENT; KARST; SINKHOLE;

EID: 0041627683     PISSN: 14709236     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1144/1470-9236/2002-33     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. ABDULLAH, W.A. & MOLLAH, M.A. 1999. Detection and treatment of karst cavities in Kuwait. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 123-127.
2. ANON. 1995. The description and classification of weathered rocks for engineering purposes: Geological Society Engineering Group Working Party Report. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 28, 207-242.
3. BARTON, N., LIEN, R. & LUNDE, J. 1974. Engineering classification of rock masses for tunnel design. Rock Mechanics, 6, 189-236.
4. BECK, B.F. & SINCLAIR, W.C. 1986. Sinkholes in Florida: an introduction. Institute Report 85-86-4. Florida Sinkhole Research.
5. BELL, F.G., CULSHAW, M.G. & WALTHAM, A.C. 2004. Sinkholes and subsidence. Praxis, Chichester, in press.
6. BENNETT, D. 1997. Finding a foothold. New Civil Engineer (4), 24-25.
7. BEZUIDENHOUT, C.A. & ENSLIN, J.F. 1970. Surface subsidence and sinkholes in the dolomite areas of the Far West Rand, Transvaal, Republic of South Africa. International Association of Hydrological Science, 89, 482-495.
8. BIENIAWSKI, Z.T. 1973. Engineering classification of jointed rock masses. Transactions of the South African Institute of Civil Engineers, 15, 335-343.
9. BÖGLI, A. 1960. Kalklosung und Karrenbildung. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie, 2, 4-21.
10. BONAPARTE, R. & BERG, R.R. 1987. The use of geosynthetics to support roadways over sinkhole prone areas. In: BECK, B.F. & WILSON, W.L. (eds) Karst Hydrogeology: Engineering and Environmental Applications. Balkema, Rotterdam, 437-445.
11. BRINK, A.B.A. 1979. Engineering Geology of South Africa, 1. Building Publications. Pretoria.
12. BRINK, A.B.A. 1984. A brief review of the South Africa sinkhole problem. In: BECK, B.F. (ed.) Sinkholes: their geology, engineering and environmental impact. Balkema, Rotterdam, 123-127.
13. BUTLER, D.K. 1984. Microgravimetric and gravity gradient techniques for detection of subsurface cavities. Geophysics, 41, 1016-1130.
14. CLARK, R.G., GUTMANIS, J.C., FURLEY, A.E. & JORDAN, P.G. 1981. Engineering geology for a major industrial complex at Aughinish Island, Co Limerick, Ireland. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 14, 231-239.
15. COOPER, S.S. & BALLARD, R.F. 1988. Geophysical exploration for cavity detection in karst terrain. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures, Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 25-39.
16. CRAWFORD, N.C. 1986. Karst hydrological problems associated with urban development: groundwater contamination, hazardous fumes, sinkhole flooding and sinkhole collapse in the Bowling Green area, Kentucky. Field trip guidebook. Centre for Cave and Karst Studies, Western Kentucky University.
17. CRAWFORD, N.C., LEWIS, M.A., WINTER, S.A. & WEBSTER, J.A. 1999. Microgravity techniques for subsurface investigations of sinkhole collapses and for detection of groundwater flow paths through karst aquifers. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 203-218.
18. CULSHAW, M.G. & WALTHAM, A.C. 1987. Natural and artificial cavities as ground engineering hazards. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 20, 139-150.
19. DOUGHERTY, P.H. & PERLOW, M. 1987. The Macungie sinkhole. Leigh Valley. Pennsylvania: cause and repair. In: BECK, B.F. & WILSON, W.L. (eds) Karst Hydrogeology: Engineering and Environmental Applications. Balkema, Rotterdam, 425-435.
20. DREYBRODT, W., ROMANOV, D. & GABROVSEK, F. 2002. Karstification below dam sites: a model of increasing leakage from reservoirs. Environmental Geology, 42, 518-524.
21. DRUMM, E.C., KANE, W.F. & YOON, C.J. 1990. Application of limit plasticity to the stability of sinkholes. Engineering Geology, 29, 213-225.
22. DUNSCOMB, M.H. & REHWOLDT, E. 1999. Two-dimensional resistivity profiling: geophysical weapon of choice in karst terrain for engineering applications. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 219-224.
23. ERWIN, J.W. & BROWN, R.A. 1988. Karstic foundation problems Sunny Point Railroad. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures, Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. 74-85.
24. FOOKES, P.G. 1997. Geology for engineers: the geological model, prediction and performance. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 30, 293-424.
25. FOOKES, P.G. & HAWKINS, A.B. 1988. Limestone weathering: its engineering significance and a proposed classification scheme. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 21, 7-31.
26. FOOSE, R.M. 1969. Mine dewatering and recharge in carbonate rocks near Hershey, Pennsylvania. Geological Society of America Engineering Geology Case Histories, 7, 45-60.
27. FOOSE, R.M. & HUMPHREVILLE, J.A. 1979. Engineering geological approaches to foundations in the karst terrain of the Hershey Valley. Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologists, 16, 355-381.
28. FORD, D.C. & WILLIAMS, P.F. 1989. Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology. Unwin Hyman, London.
29. GARLANGER, J.E. 1991. Foundation design in Florida karst. Concrete International, 13(4), 56-62.
30. GARY, M.K. 1999. Maryland's zone of dewatering influence law for limestone quarries. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 273-277.
31. GREEN, M.R., FORTH, R.A. & BEAUMONT, D. 1995. Land subsidence on Magnesian Limestone terrain in County Durham, England. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 234. 423-431.
32. HANDFELT, L.D. & ATTWOOLL, W.J. 1988. Exploration of karst conditions in central Florida. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures, Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 40-52.
33. HEATH, W.E. 1995. Drilled pile foundations in porous pinnacled carbonate rock. In: BECK, B.F. (ed.) Karst GeoHazards. Balkema, Rotterdam, 371-374.
34. HENRY, J.F. 1987. The application of compaction grouting to karstic foundation problems. In: BECK, B.F. & WILSON, W.L. (eds) Karst Hydrogeology: Engineering and Environmental Applications. Balkema, Rotterdam, 447-450.
35. HIGGINBOTTOM, I.E. 1966. The engineering geology of chalk. Proceedings of Symposium on Chalk in Earthworks and Foundations. Institution of Civil Engineers, London, 1-13.
36. HUBBARD, D.A. 1999. Remediation of sinkholes along Virginia's highways. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 413-417.
37. HYATT, J.A. & JACOBS, P.M. 1996. Distribution and morphology of sinkholes triggered by flooding following Tropical Storm Alberto at Albany, Georgia, USA. Geomorphology, 17, 305-316.
38. JAMMAL, S.E. 1986. The Winter Park sinkhole and Central Florida sinkhole type subsidence. International Association of Hydrological Sciences, 151, 585-594.
39. JENNINGS, J.E. 1966. Building on dolomites in the Transvaal. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, 8, 41-62.
40. JENNINGS, J.N. 1968. Syngenetic karst in Australia. Publication G/5. Australia National University Department of Geography, Canberra, 41-110.
41. KANNAN, R.C. 1999. Designing foundations around sinkholes. Engineering Geology, 52, 75-82.
42. KANNAN, R.C. & NETTLES, N.S. 1999. Remedial measures for residential structures damaged by sinkhole activity. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 135-139.
43. KATH, R.L., MCLEAN, A.T., SULLIVAN, W.R. & HUMPHRIES, R.W. 1995. Engineering aspects of karst: three engineering case studies in Cambrian and Ordovician carbonates of the Valley and Ridge Province. In: BECK, B.F. (ed.) Karst GeoHazards. Balkema, Rotterdam, 469-474.
44. KEMPTON, G.T., LAWSON, C.R., JONES, C.J.F.P. & DEMERDASH, M. 1998. The use of geosynthetics to prevent the structural collapse of fills over areas prone to subsidence. In: GROOT, M.B. DE, HOEDT, G. DEN & TERMAAT, R.J. (eds) Geosynthetics: Applications, Design and Construction. Balkema, Rotterdam, 317-324.
45. KLEYWEGT, R.J. & ENSLIN, J.F. 1973. The application of the gravity method to the problem of ground settlement and sinkhole formation in dolomite on the Far West Rand. South Africa. Proceedings of Symposium on Sinkholes and Subsidence. International Association of Engineering Geologists, Hannover, 301-315.
46. KLIMCHOUK, A.B. 2000. The formation of epikarst and its role in vadose speleogenesis. In: KLIMCHOUK, A.B., FORD, D.C., PALMER, A.N. & DREYBRODT, W. (eds) Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, 91-99.
47. KLIMCHOUK, A., LOWE, D., COOPER, A. & SAURO, U. (eds) 1996. Gypsum karst of the world. International Journal of Speleology, 25(3-4), 1-307.
48. KLIMCHOUK, A.B., FORD, D.C., PALMER, A.N. & DREYBRODT, W. (eds) 2000. Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville.
49. KNIGHT, F.J. 1971. Geologic problems of urban growth in limestone terrains of Pennsylvania. Bulletin of the Association of Engineering Geologists, 8, 91-101.
50. LAMOREAUX, P.E. & NEWTON, J.G. 1986. Catastrophic subsidence: an environmental hazard, Shelby County, Alabama. Environmental Geology and Water Science, 8, 25-40.
51. LI, G. & ZHOU, W. 1999. Sinkholes in karst mining areas in China and some methods of prevention. Engineering Geology, 52, 45-50.
52. LOWE, D.J. 2000. Role of stratigraphic elements in speleogenesis: the speleoinception concept. In. KLIMCHOUK, A.B., FORD, D.C., PALMER, A.N. & DREYBRODT, W. (eds) Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, 65 76.
53. LOWE, D. & WALTHAM, T. 2002. Dictionary of karst and caves. British Cave Research Association Cave Studies, 10, 1-40.
54. LU, Y. & COOPER, A.H. 1997. Gypsum karst geohazards in China. In: BECK, B.F. & STEPHENSON, J.B. (eds) The Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology of Karst Terranes. Balkema, Rotterdam, 117-126.
55. MCDONALD, R., RUSSILL, N. & DAVIES, R. 1999. Integrated geophysical surveys applied to karstic studies. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 243-246.
56. MISHU, L.P., GODFREY, J.D. & MISHU, J.R. 1997. Foundation remedies for residential construction over karst limestone in Nashville. Tennessee. In: BECK, B.F. & STEPHENSON, J.B. (eds) The Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology of Karst Terranes. Balkema, Rotterdam, 319-321.
57. MOORE, H.L. 1988. Treatment of karst along Tennessee highways. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures, Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 133-148.
58. NEWTON, J.G. 1987. Development of sinkholes resulting from man's activities in the eastern United States. US Geological Survey Circular, 968, 1-54.
59. PALMER, A.N. 1991. Origin and morphology of limestone caves. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 103, 1-21.
60. QUINLAN, J.F. 1986. Legal aspects of sinkhole development and flooding in karst terranes. Environmental Geology and Water Science, 8, 41 61.
61. REITH, C.M., CADDEN, A.W. & NAPLES, C.J. 1999. Engineers challenged by Mother Nature's twist of geology. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 149-155.
62. RHODES, S.J. & MARYCHURCH, I.M. 1998. Chalk solution features at three sites in southeast England: their formation and treatment. In: MAUND, J.G. & EDDLESTON, M. (eds) Geohazards in Engineering Geology. Engineering Geology Special Publication, 15. Geological Society, London, 277-289.
63. SEBELA, S., MIHEVC, A. & SLABE, T. 1999. The vulnerability map of karst along highways in Slovenia. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 419-422.
64. SIEGEL, T.C., BELGERI, J.J. & TERRY, M.W. 1999. Compaction grouting versus cap grouting for sinkhole remediation in east Tennessee. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 157 163.
65. SIMPSON, D. 2001. It's a vision thing. Ground Engineering, 34, 22-23.
66. SINCLAIR, W.C. 1982. Sinkhole development resulting from groundwater withdrawal in the Tampa area, Florida. US Geological Survey Water Resources Investigation, 81-50, 1-19.
67. SMITH, D.I. & ATKINSON, T.C. 1976. Process, landforms and climate in limestone regions. In: DERBYSHIRE, E. (ed.) Geomorphology and Climate. Wiley, London, 367-409.
68. SOWERS, G.F. 1975. Failures in limestones in humid subtropics. Journal of the Geotechnical Engineering Division ASCE, 101(GT8), 771-787.
69. SOWERS, G.F. 1986. Correction and protection in limestone terrane. Environmental Geology and Water Science, 8, 77-82.
70. SOWERS, G.F. 1996. Building on Sinkholes. ASCE Press, New York.
71. STATHAM, I. & BAKER, M. 1986. Foundation problems on limestone: a case history from the Carboniferous Limestone at Chepstow, Gwent. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 19, 191-201.
72. STYLES, P. & THOMAS, E. 2001. The use of microgravity for the characterisation of karstic cavities on Grand Bahama. Bahamas. In: BECK, B.F. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Geotechnical and Environmental Applications of Karst Geology and Hydrology. Balkema, Rotterdam, 389-394.
73. TAN, B.K. 1987. Some geotechnical aspects of urban development over limestone terrain in Malaysia. Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geologists, 35, 57-63.
74. THARP, T.M. 1999. Mechanics of upward propogation of cover-collapse sinkholes. Engineering Geology, 52, 23-33.
75. THOMAS, T.M. 1974. The South Wales interstratal karst. Transactions of the British Cave Research Association, 1, 131-152.
76. TOLMACHEV, V.V., PIDYASHENKO, S.E. & BALASHOVA, T.A. 1999. The system of antikarst protection on railways in Russia. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT, A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 423-429.
77. VANDEVELDE, G.T. & SCHMIDT, N.G. 1988. Geotechnical exploration and site preparation techniques for large mall in karst terrain. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures. Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 86-96.
78. VAZQUEZ CASTILLO, L. & RODRIGUEZ MOLINA, C. 1999. Geotechnical engineering for a highway through cone karst in Puerto Rico. In: BECK, B.F., PETTIT. A.J. & HERRING, J.G. (eds) Hydrology and Engineering Geology of Sinkholes and Karst. Balkema, Rotterdam, 431-445.
79. VILLARD, P., GOURC, J.P. & GIRAUD, H. 2000. A geosynthetic reinforcement solution to prevent the formation of localized sinkholes. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37, 987-999.
80. WAGENER, F.v.M. 1985. Problems of soils in South Africa: dolomites. The Civil Engineer in South Africa, 27, 395-407.
81. WAGENER, F.v.M. & DAY, P.W. 1986. Construction on dolomite in South Africa. Environmental Geology and Water Science, 8, 83-89.
82. WALTHAM, A.C. 1989. Ground subsidence. Blackie, Glasgow.
83. WALTHAM, A.C. 1995. The pinnacle karst of Gunung Api, Mulu, Sarawak. Cave and Karst Science, 22, 123-126.
84. WALTHAM, A.C. & SMART, P.L. 1988. Civil engineering difficulties in the karst of China. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 21, 2-6.
85. WALTHAM, A.C., VANDENVEN, G. & EK, C,M. 1986. Site investigations on cavernous limestone for the Remouchamps Viaduct, Belgium. Ground Engineering, 19(8), 16-18.
86. WALTHAM, T. 2002. Gypsum karst near Sivas, Turkey. Cave and Karst Science, 29, 39-44.
87. WALTHAM, T. 2003. Karst terrains. In: FOOKES, P.G., LEE, M. & MILLIGAN, G. (eds) Geomorphology for Engineers. Whittles Press, Caithness.
88. WELSH, J.P. 1988. Sinkhole rectification by compaction grouting. In: SITAR, N. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures. Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 115-132.
89. WHITE, S. 2000. Syngenetic karst in coastal dune limestone: a review. In: KLIMCHOUK, A.B., FORD, D.C., PALMER, A.N. & DREYRRODT, W. (eds) Speleogenesis. Evolution of Karst Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, 234-237.
90. WILLIAMS, J.H. & VINEYARD, J.D. 1976. Geological indicators of catastrophic collapse in karst terrane in Missouri. Transportation Research Record, 612, 31-37.
91. WILSON, W.L. & BECK, B.F. 1988. Evaluating sinkhole hazard in mantled karst terrane. In: SIDAR, M. (ed.) Geotechnical aspects of karst terrains: exploration, foundation design and performance, and remedial measures. Geotechnical Special Publication, 14. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1-24.
92. ZHANG, Z. 1980. Karst types in China. GeoJournal, 4, 541-570.