Developmental and behavioral consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure: A review

Journal of Perinatology

Volumn 32, Issue 11, 2012, Pages 819-828

  Lambert, B L ^a   Bauer, C R ^b  

^a Department of Biology   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Behavior; cocaine; development; high risk population; prenatal exposure

Indexed keywords

COCAINE;

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; CHILD GROWTH; CHILD WELFARE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; HUMAN; INTELLIGENCE; LANGUAGE; MENTAL HEALTH; NEUROBIOLOGY; PRENATAL DRUG EXPOSURE; PSYCHOPATHY; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SPECIAL EDUCATION;

CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR DISORDERS; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COCAINE-RELATED DISORDERS; EDUCATION, SPECIAL; EXECUTIVE FUNCTION; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; LANGUAGE; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS;

EID: 84868584242     PISSN: 07438346     EISSN: 14765543     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/jp.2012.90     Document Type: Review

References (122)

1. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2008 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-36, HHS Publication No. SMA 09-4434). Rockville, MD, 2009.
2. Wenzel SL. Prenatal Cocaine Exposure: Scientific Considerations and Policy Implications. RAND Drug Policy Research Center: Santa Monica, CA, 2001.
3. Chasnoff IJ, Anson A, Hatcher R, Stenson H, Iaukea K, Randolph LA. Prenatal exposure to cocaine and other drugs: outcome at four to six years. Ann NY Acad Sci 1998; 846:314-328.
4. Ventura SJ, Abma JC, Mosher WD, Henshaw SK. Estimated pregnancy rates for the United States, 1990-2004. Natl Vital Stat Rep 2008; 56(15):1-25.
5. Everitt BJ, Robbins TW. Neural systems of reinforcement for drug addiction: from actions to habits to compulsions. Nat Neurosci 2005; 8(11):1481-1489.
6. Wanat MJ, Willuhn I, Clark JJ, Phillips PEM. Phasic dopamine release in appetitive behaviors and drug abuse. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2009; 2(2):195-213.
7. Penberthy JK, Ait-Daoud N, Vaughan M, Fanning T. Review of treatment for cocaine dependence. Curr Drug Abuse Rev 2010; 3(1):49-62.
8. Bada HS, Bann C, Bauer CR, Shankaran S, Lester B, LaGasse L et al. Preadolescent behavior problems after prenatal cocaine exposure: relationship between teacher and caretaker ratings (Maternal Lifestyle Study). Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 33(1):78-87.
9. Bailey BN, Sood BG, Sokol RJ, Ager J, Janisse J, Hannigan JH et al. Gender and alcohol moderate prenatal cocaine effects on teacher-report of child behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(2):181-189.
10. Eyler FD, Warner TD, Behnke M, Hou W, Wobie K, Garvan CW. Executive functioning at ages 5 and 7 years in children with prenatal cocaine exposure. Dev Neurosci 2009; 31:121-136.
11. Frank DA, Rose-Jacobs R, Crooks D, Cabral HJ, Gerteis J, Hacker KA et al. Adolescent initiation of licit and illicit substance use: impact of intrauterine exposures and post-natal exposure to violence. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 33(1):100-109.
12. Hurt H, Giannetta JM, Korczykowski M, Hoang A, Tang KZ, Betancourt L et al. Functional magnetic resonance imaging and working memory in adolescents with gestational cocaine exposure. J Pediatr 2008; 152(3):371-377.
13. Lewis BA, Minnes S, Short EJ, Weishampel P, Satayathum S, Min MO et al. The effects of prenatal cocaine on language development at 10 years of age. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 33(1):17-24.
14. Morrow CE, Culbertson JL, Accornero VH, Xue L, Anthony JC, Bandstra ES. Learning disabilities and intellectual functioning in school-aged children with prenatal cocaine exposure. Dev Neuropsychol 2006; 30(3):905-931.
15. Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Leech S, Willford J. Prenatal cocaine exposure: effects on mother-and teacher-rated behavior problems and growth in school-age children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 33(1):69-71.
16. US National Institutes of Health. NIDA Survey Provides First National Data on Drug Use During Pregnancy. National Pregnancy and Health Survey, 1992.
17. Ebrahim SH, Gfroerer J. Pregnancy-related substance use in the United States during 1996-1998. Obstet Gynecol 2003; 101(2):374-379.
18. Ostrea EM, Brady M, Gause S, Raymundo AL, Stevens M. Drug screening of newborns meconium analysis: a large-scale, prospective, epidemiologic study. Pediatrics 1992; 89(1):107-113.
19. Derauf C, Kekatpure M, Neyzi N, Lester B, Kosofsky B. Neuroimaging of children following prenatal drug exposure. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2009; 20(4):441-454.
20. Lester BM, Padbury JF. Third pathophysiology of prenatal cocaine exposure. Dev Neurosci 2009; 31(1-2):23-35.
21. Stanwood GD, Levitt P. Drug exposure early in life: functional repercussions of changing neuropharmacology during sensitive periods of brain development. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2004; 4(1):65-71.
22. Stanwood GD, Washington RA, Shumsky JS, Levitt P. Prenatal cocaine exposure produces consistent developmental alterations in dopamine-rich regions of the cerebral cortex. Neuroscience 2001; 106(1):5-14.
23. Hamilton L, Czoty P, Gage H, Nader M. Characterization of the dopamine receptor system in adult rhesus monkeys exposed to cocaine throughout gestation. Psychopharmacology 2010; 210(4):481-488.
24. Sheinkopf SJ, Lester BM, Sanes JN, Eliassen JC, Hutchison ER, Seifer R et al. Functional MRI and response inhibition in children exposed to cocaine in utero. Dev Neurosci 2009; 31:159-166.
25. Frank DA, Bresnahan K, Zuckerman BS. Maternal cocaine use: impact on child health and development. Curr Probl Pediatr 1996; 26(2):52-70.
26. Huston AC, McLoyd VC, Coll CG. Children and poverty: issues in contemporary research. Child Dev 1994; 65(2):275-282.
27. Frank DA, Augustyn M, Knight WG, Pell T, Zuckerman B. Growth, development, and behavior in early childhood following prenatal cocaine exposure: a systematic review. JAMA 2001; 285(12):1613-1625.
28. Covington CY, Nordstrom-Klee B, Ager J, Sokol R, Delaney-Black V. Birth to age 7 growth of children prenatally exposed to drugs: a prospective cohort study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002; 24(4):489-496.
29. Gouin K, Murphy K, Shah PS. Effects of cocaine use during pregnancy on low birthweight and preterm birth: systematic review and metaanalyses. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011; 204(4): e1-e12.
30. Mayes LC, Cicchetti D, Acharyya S, Zhang H. Developmental trajectories of cocaine-and-other-drug-exposed and non-cocaine-exposed children. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2003; 24(5):323-335.
31. Shankaran S, Das A, Bauer CR, Bada HS, Lester B, Wright LL et al. Association between patterns of maternal substance use and infant birth weight, length, and head circumference. Pediatrics 2004; 114(2):226-234.
32. Singer LT, Arendt R, Minnes S, Farkas K, Salvator A, Kirchner HL et al. Cognitive and motor outcomes of cocaine-exposed infants. JAMA 2002; 287(15):1952-1960.
33. Behnke M, Eyler FD, Garvan CW, Wobie K. The search for congenital malformations in newborns with fetal cocaine exposure. Pediatrics 2001; 107(5): E74.
34. Minnes S, Robin NH, Alt AA, Kirchner HL, Satayathum S, Salbert BA et al. Dysmorphic and anthropometric outcomes in 6-year-old prenatally cocaine-exposed children. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2006; 28(1):28-38.
35. Archibald SL, Fennema-Notestine C, Gamst A, Riley EP, Mattson SN, Jernigan TL. Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Med Child Neurol 2001; 43(3):148-154.
36. DiFranza JR, Aligne CA, Weitzman M. Prenatal and postnatal environmental tobacco smoke exposure and children's health. Pediatrics 2004; 113(4):1007-1015.
37. Smith LM, LaGasse LL, Derauf C, Grant P, Shah R, Arria A et al. The Infant Development, Environment, and Lifestyle Study: effects of prenatal methamphetamine exposure, polydrug exposure, and poverty on intrauterine growth. Pediatrics 2006; 118(3):1149-1156.
38. Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Larkby C. Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on growth: a longitudinal analysis. Pediatrics 2007; 120(4): e1017-e1027.
39. Shankaran S, Bann CM, Bauer CR, Lester BM, Bada HS, Das A et al. Prenatal cocaine exposure and BMI and blood pressure at 9 years of age. J Hypertens 2010; 28(6):1166-1175.
40. Baschat AA, Galan HL, Ross MG, Gabbe SG. Intrauterine growth restriction. In: Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL (eds). Obstetrics: Normal and Problem Pregnancies. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone: Philadelphia, PA, 2007.
41. Arendt RE, Short EJ, Singer LT, Minnes S, Hewitt J, Flynn S et al. Children prenatally exposed to cocaine: developmental outcomes and environmental risks at seven years of age. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004; 25(2):83-90.
42. Bennett DS, Bendersky M, Lewis M. Children's intellectual and emotional-behavioral adjustment at 4 years as a function of cocaine exposure, maternal characteristics, and environmental risk. Dev Psychol 2002; 35(5):648-658.
43. Bennett DS, Bendersky M, Lewis M. Children's cognitive ability from 4 to 9 years old as a function of prenatal cocaine exposure, environmental risk, and maternal verbal intelligence. Dev Psychol 2008; 44(4):919-928.
44. Brown JV, Bakeman R, Coles CD, Platzman KA, Lynch ME. Prenatal cocaine exposure: a comparison of 2-year-old children in parental and nonparental care. Child Dev 2004; 75:1282-1295.
45. Frank DA, Rose-Jacobs R, Beeghly M, Wilbur M, Bellinger D, Cabral H. Level of prenatal cocaine exposure and 48-month IQ: importance of preschool enrichment. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(1):15-28.
46. Messinger DS, Bauer CR, Das A, Seifer R, Lester BM, Lagasse LL et al. The Maternal Lifestyle Study: cognitive, motor, and behavioral outcomes of cocaine-exposed and opiate-exposed infants through three years of age. Pediatrics 2004; 113:1677-1685.
47. Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Willford J. Continued effects of prenatal cocaine use: preschool development. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009; 31:325-333.
48. Singer LT, Minnes S, Short E, Arendt R, Farkas K, Lewis B et al. Cognitive outcomes of preschool children with prenatal cocaine exposure. JAMA 2004; 291:2448-2456.
49. Hurt H, Brodsky NL, Roth H, Malmud E, Giannetta JM. School performance of children with gestational cocaine exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(2):203-211.
50. Pulsifer MB, Radonovich K, Belcher HM, Butz AM. Intelligence and school readiness in preschool children with prenatal drug exposure. Child Neuropsychol 2004; 10(2):89-101.
51. Levine TP, Liu J, Das A, Lester B, Lagasse L, Shankaran S et al. Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on special education in school-aged children. Pediatrics 2008; 122(1): e83-e91.
52. Bandstra ES, Morrow CE, Vogel AL, Fifer RC, Ofir AY, Dausa AT et al. Longitudinal influence of prenatal cocaine exposure on child language functioning. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002; 24(3):297-308.
53. Bandstra ES, Vogel AL, Morrow CE, Anthony JC, Lihua Xue JC. Severity of prenatal cocaine exposure and child language functioning through age seven years: a longitudinal latent growth curve analysis. Subst Use Misuse 2004; 39(1):25-59.
54. Lewis BA, Singer LT, Short EJ, Minnes S, Arendt R, Weishampel P et al. Four-year language outcomes of children exposed to cocaine in utero. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2004; 26(5):617-627.
55. Lewis BA, Kirchner HL, Short EJ, Minnes S, Weishampel P, Satayathum S et al. Prenatal cocaine and tobacco effects on children's language trajectories. Pediatrics 2007; 120(1): e78-e85.
56. Marques PR, Pokorni JL, Long T, Teti LO. Maternal depression and cognitive features of 9-year-old children prenatally-exposed to cocaine. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse 2007; 33(1):45-61.
57. Morrow CE, Banstra ES, Anthony JC, Ofir AY, Xue L, Reyes MB. Influence of prenatal cocaine exposure on early language development: longitudinal findings from four months to three years of age. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2003; 24(1):39-50.
58. Beeghly M, Martin B, Rose-Jacobs R, Cabral H, Heeren T, Augustyn M et al. Prenatal cocaine exposure and children's language functioning at 6 and 9.5 years: moderating effects of child age, birthweight, and gender. J Pediatr Psychol 2006; 31:98-115.
59. Morrow CE, Vogel AL, Anthony JC, Ofir AY, Dausa AT, Bandstra ES. Expressive and receptive language functioning in preschool children with prenatal cocaine exposure. J Pediatr Psychol 2004; 29(7):543-554.
60. Betancourt LM, Yang W, Brodsky NL, Gallagher PR, Malmud EK, Giannetta JM et al. Adolescents with and without gestational cocaine exposure: longitudinal analysis of inhibitory control, memory and receptive language. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2011; 33(1):36-46.
61. Avants BB, Hurt H, Giannetta JM, Epstein CL, Shera DM, Rao H et al. Effects of heavy in utero cocaine exposure on adolescent caudate morphology. Pediatr Neurol 2007; 37(4):275-279.
62. Dow-Edwards DL, Benveniste H, Behnke M, Bandstra ES, Singer LT, Hurd YL et al. Neuroimaging of prenatal drug exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2006; 28(3):386-402.
63. Rao H, Wang J, Giannetta J, Korczykowski M, Shera D, Avants BB et al. Altered resting cerebral blood flow in adolescents with in utero cocaine exposure revealed perfusion functional MRI. Pediatrics 2007; 120(5): e1245-e1254.
64. Rivkin MJ, Davis PE, Lemaster JL, Cabral HJ, Warfield SK, Mulkern RV et al. Volumetric MRI study of brain in children with intrauterine exposure to cocaine, alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Pediatrics 2008; 121(4):741-750.
65. Smith LM, Chang L, Yonekura ML, Gilbride K, Kuo J, Poland RE et al. Brain proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy and imaging in children exposed to cocaine in utero. Pediatrics 2001; 107(2):227-231.
66. Warner TD, Behnke M, Eyler FD, Padgett K, Leonard C, Hou W et al. Diffusion tensor imaging of frontal white matter and executive functioning in cocaine-exposed children. Pediatrics 2006; 118(5):2014-2024.
67. Li Z, Santhanam P, Coles CD, Lynch ME, Hamann S, Peltier S et al. Increased ''default mode'' activity in adolescents prenatally exposed to cocaine. Hum Brain Mapp 2010; 32(5):759-770.
68. Mayes LC. A behavioral teratogenic model of the impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on arousal regulatory systems. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002; 24(3):385-395.
69. Miller GE, Chen E, Zhou ES. If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychol Bull 2007; 133(1):25-45.
70. McEwen BS, Gianaros PJ. Central role of the brain in stress and adaptation: links to socioeconomic status, health, and disease. Ann NY Acad Sci 2010; 1186:190-222.
71. Jacobson SW, Bihun JT, Chiodo LM. Effects of prenatal alcohol and cocaine exposure on infant cortisol levels. Dev Psychopathol 1999; 11:195-208.
72. Scafidi FA, Field TM. Cocaine-exposed preterm neonates show behavioral and hormonal differences. Pediatrics 1996; 97(6):851-855.
73. Magnano CL, Gardner JM, Karmel BZ. Differences in salivary cortisol levels in cocaine-exposed and noncocaine-exposed NICU infants. Dev Psychobiol 1992; 25(2):93-103.
74. Eiden RD, Veira Y, Granger DA. Prenatal cocaine exposure and infant cortisol reactivity. Child Dev 2009; 80(2):528-543.
75. Lester BM, LaGasse LL, Shankaran S, Bada HS, Bauer CR, Lin R et al. Prenatal cocaine exposure related to cortisol stress reactivity in 11-year-old children. J Pediatr 2010; 157(2):288-295.
76. Chaplin TM, Freiburger MB, Mayes LC, Sinha R. Prenatal cocaine exposure, gender, and adolescent stress response: a prospective longitudinal study. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2010; 32(6):595-604.
77. Bauer CR, Lambert BL, Bann CM, Lester BM, Shankaran S, Bada HS et al. Long-term impact of maternal substance use during pregnancy and extrauterine environmental adversity: stress hormone levels of preadolescent children. Pediatr Res 2011; 70(2):213-219.
78. Noland JS, Singer LT, Arendt RE, Minnes S, Short EJ, Bearer CF. Executive functioning in preschool-age children prenatally exposed to alcohol, cocaine, and marijuana. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003; 27(4):647-656.
79. Noland JS, Singer LT, Mehta SK, Super DM. Prenatal cocaine/polydrug exposure and infant performance on an executive functioning task. Dev Neuropsychol 2003; 24(1):499-517.
80. Fried PA, Watkinson B, Gray R. Differential effects on cognitive functioning in 13-to 16-year-olds prenatally exposed to cigarettes and marijuana. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2003; 25(4):427-436.
81. Rose-Jacobs R, Waber D, Beeghly M, Cabral H, Appugleise D, Heeren T et al. Intrauterine cocaine exposure and executive functioning in middle childhood. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009; 31(3):159-168.
82. Smith AM, Fried PA, Hogan MJ, Cameron I. Effects of prenatal marijuana on response inhibition: an fMRI study of young adults. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2004; 26(4):533-542.
83. Accornero VH, Amado AJ, Morrow CE, Xue L, Anthony JC, Bandstra ES. Impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on attention and response inhibition as assessed continuous performance tests. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007; 28(3):195-205.
84. Carmody DP, Bennett DS, Lewis M. The effects of prenatal cocaine exposure and gender on inhibitory control and attention. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2011; 33(1):61-68.
85. Noland JS, Singer LT, Short EJ, Minnes S, Arendt RE, Lester Kirchner H et al. Prenatal drug exposure and selective attention in preschoolers. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(3):429-438.
86. Mayes LC, Molfese DL, Key APF, Hunter NC. Event-related potentials in cocaine-exposed children during a Stroop task. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(6):797-813.
87. Chiriboga CA, Kuhn L, Wasserman GA. Prenatal cocaine exposures and dose-related cocaine effects on infant tone and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2007; 29(3):323-330.
88. Eyler FD, Behnke M. Early development of infants exposed to drugs prenatally. Clin Perinatol 1999; 26:107-150.
89. Lester BM, Tronick EZ, LaGasse L, Seifer R, Bauer CR, Shankaran S et al. The Maternal Lifestyle Study: effects of substance exposure during pregnancy on neurodevelopmental outcome in 1-month-old infants. Pediatrics 2002; 110(6):1182-1192.
90. Tronick EZ, Messinger DS, Weinberg MK, Lester BM, LaGasse L, Seifer R et al. Cocaine exposure is associated with subtle compromises of infants' and mothers' social-emotional behavior and dyadic features of their interaction in the face-to-face still-face paradigm. Dev Psychol 2005; 41(5):711-722.
91. Richardson GA, Goldschmidt L, Willford J. The effects of prenatal cocaine use on infant development. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2008; 30(2):96-106.
92. Singer LT, Arendt R, Minnes S, Farkas K, Salvator A. Neurobehavioral outcomes of cocaine-exposed infants. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2000; 22(5):653-666.
93. Liu J, Bann C, Lester B, Tronick E, Das A, Lagasse L et al. Neonatal neurobehavior predicts medical and behavioral outcome. Pediatrics 2010; 125(1): e90-e98.
94. Bada HS, Das A, Bauer CR, Shankaran S, Lester B, LaGasse L et al. Impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on child behavior problems through school age. Pediatrics 2007; 119(2): e348-e359.
95. Linares TJ, Singer LT, Kirchner HL, Short EJ, Min MO, Hussey P et al. Mental health outcomes of cocaine-exposed children at 6 years of age. J Pediatr Psychol 2006; 31(1):85-97.
96. Sood BG, Nordstrom Bailey B, Covington C, Sokol RJ, Ager J, Janisse J et al. Gender and alcohol moderate caregiver reported child behavior after prenatal cocaine. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2005; 27(2):191-201.
97. Accornero VH, Morrow CE, Bandstra ES, Johnson AL, Anthony JC. Behavioral outcome of preschoolers exposed prenatally to cocaine: role of maternal behavioral health. J Pediatr Psychol 2002; 27(3):259-269.
98. Bagner D, Sheinkopf S, Miller-Loncar C, LaGasse L, Lester B, Liu J et al. The effect of parenting stress on child behavior problems in high-risk children with prenatal drug exposure. Child Psychiat Hum D 2009; 40(1):73-84.
99. LaGasse LL, Hammond J, Liu J, Lester BM, Shankaran S, Bada H et al. Violence and delinquency, early onset drug use, and psychopathology in drug-exposed youth at 11 years. Ann NY Acad Sci 2006; 1094:313-318.
100. Yumoto C, Jacobson SW, Jacobson JL. Fetal substance exposure and cumulative environmental risk in an African American cohort. Child Dev 2008; 79(6):1761-1776.
101. Warner TD, Behnke M, Hou W, Garvan CW, Wobie K, Eyler FD. Predicting caregiver-reported behavior problems in cocaine-exposed children at 3 years. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2006; 27(2):83-92.
102. Lester BM, Bagner DM, Liu J, LaGasse LL, Seifer R, Bauer CR et al. Infant neurobehavioral dysregulation: behavior problems in children with prenatal substance exposure. Pediatrics 2009; 124(5):1355-1362.
103. Igra V, Irwin CE. Theories of adolescent risk-taking behavior. In: DiClemente RJ, Hansen WB, Ponton LE (eds). Handbook of Adolescent Health Risk Behavior. Plenum: New York, 1997, pp 35-52.
104. Barnard M, McKeganey N. The impact of parental problem drug use on children: what is the problem and what can be done to help? Addiction 2004; 99(5):552-559.
105. Gibbons FX, Gerrard M, Lune LSV, Wills TA, Brody G, Conger RD. Context and cognitions: environmental risk, social influence, and adolescent substance use. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 2004; 30(8):1048-1061.
106. Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Templin T, Ager J, Nordstrom-Klee B, Martier S et al. Teacher-assessed behavior of children prenatally exposed to cocaine. Pediatrics 2000; 106(4):782-791.
107. Bennett D, Bendersky M, Lewis M. Preadolescent health risk behavior as a function of prenatal cocaine exposure and gender. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2007; 28(6):467-472.
108. Gerteis J, Chartrand M, Martin B, Cabral HJ, Rose-Jacobs R, Crooks D et al. Are there effects of intrauterine cocaine exposure on delinquency during early adolescence? A preliminary report. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2011; 32(5):393-401.
109. Slutske WS, Heath AC, Dinwiddie SH, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Dunne MP et al. Modeling genetic and environmental influences in the etiology of conduct disorder: a study of 2, 682 adult twin pairs. J Abnorm Psychol 1997; 106(2):266-279.
110. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Monuteaux MC, Feighner JA. Patterns of alcohol and drug use in adolescents can be predicted by parental substance use disorders. Pediatrics 2000; 106:792-797.
111. Kaplow JB, Curran PJ, Dodge KA. Child, parent, and peer predictors of early-onset substance use: a multisite longitudinal study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2002; 30(3):199-216.
112. O'Leary C, Frank D, Grant-Knight W, Beeghly M, Augustyn M, Rose-Jacobs R et al. Suicidal ideation among urban nine and ten year olds. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2006; 27(1):33-39.
113. Greenwald MK, Chiodo LM, Hannigan JH, Sokol RJ, Janisse J, Delaney-Black V. Teens with heavy prenatal cocaine exposure respond to experimental social provocation with escape not aggression. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2011; 33(2):198-204.
114. Berger LM, Waldfogel J. Prenatal cocaine exposure: long-term effects and policy implications. Soc Serv Rev 2000; 74(1):28-54.
115. Richardson GA. Prenatal cocaine exposure: a longitudinal study of development. Ann NY Acad Sci 1998; 846:144-152.
116. Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Nordstrom B, Ager J, Janisse J, Hannigan JH et al. Prenatal cocaine: quantity of exposure and gender moderation. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2004; 25(4):254-263.
117. Bada HS, Langer J, Twomey J, Bursi C, Lagasse L, Bauer CR et al. Importance of stability of early living arrangements on behavior outcomes of children with and without prenatal drug exposure. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2008; 29(3):173-182.
118. Ackerman JP, Riggins T, Black MM. A review of the effects of prenatal cocaine exposure among school-aged children. Pediatrics 2010; 125(3):554-565.
119. Bandstra ES, Morrow CE, Mansoor E, Accornero VH. Prenatal drug exposure: infant and toddler outcomes. J Addict Dis 2010; 29:245-258.
120. Lester BM, Lagasse LL. Children of addicted women. J Addict Dis 2010; 29:259-276.
121. Nordstrom-Klee B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C, Ager J, Sokol R. Growth from birth onwards of children prenatally exposed to drugs: a literature review. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2002; 24(4):481-488.
122. Lane S, Linda CM. Cocaine addiction in mothers. Ann NY Acad Sci 2010; 1187:172-183.