Sensitivity studies of dust ice nuclei effect on cirrus clouds with the community atmosphere model CAM5

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 12, Issue 24, 2012, Pages 12061-12079

  Liu, X ^a   Shi, X ^a,b   Zhang, K ^a   Jensen, E J ^c   Gettelman, A ^d   Barahona, D ^e,f   Nenes, A ^g,h   Lawson, P ⁱ  

^a PACIFIC NORTHWEST NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^b INSTITUTE OF ATMOSPHERIC PHYSICS   (China)

^c NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

^d NATIONAL CENTER FOR ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (United States)

^e NASA GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER   (United States)

^f IM Systems Group   (United States)

^g GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

^h Georgia Institute of Technology   (United States)

ⁱ SPEC INC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; ATMOSPHERIC MODELING; CIRRUS; DUST; ICE; NORTHERN HEMISPHERE; SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS; TROPOPAUSE; TROPOSPHERE;

EID: 84868018286     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-12-12061-2012     Document Type: Article

References (86)

1. Abbatt, J. P. D., Benz, S., Cziczo, D. J., Kanji, Z., Lohmann, U., and Mohler, O.: Solid ammonium sulfate aerosols as ice nuclei: A pathway for cirrus cloud formation, Science, 313, 1770-1773, doi:10.1126/science.1129726, 2006. (Pubitemid 44454150)
2. Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterization of cirrus cloud formation in large-scale models: Homogeneous nucleation, J. Geo-phys. Res., 113, D11211, doi:10.1029/2007jd009355, 2008.
3. Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterizing the competition between homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing in cirrus cloud formation-monodisperse ice nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 369-381, doi:10.5194/acp-9-369-2009, 2009a.
4. Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Parameterizing the competition between homogeneous and heterogeneous freezing in ice cloud formation-polydisperse ice nuclei, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5933-5948, doi:10.5194/acp-9-5933-2009, 2009b.
5. Barahona, D., Rodriguez, J., and Nenes, A.: Sensitivity of the global distribution of cirrus ice crystal concentration to heterogeneous freezing, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D23213, doi:10.1029/2010JD014273, 2010.
6. Barahona, D. and Nenes, A.: Dynamical states of low temperature cirrus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3757-3771, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3757-2011, 2011.
7. Bigg, E. K.: The supercooling of water, Proc. Phys. Soc. London, 66B, 688-694, 1953.
8. Bretherton, C. S. and Park, S.: A New Moist Turbulence Parameterization in the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Climate, 22, 3422-3448, doi:10.1175/2008jcli2556.1, 2009.
9. Chen, J.-P., Hazra, A., and Levin, Z.: Parameterizing ice nu-cleation rates using contact angle and activation energy derived from laboratory data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 7431-7449, doi:10.5194/acp-8-7431-2008, 2008.
10. Chen, Y. L., DeMott, P. J., Kreidenweis, S. M., Rogers, D. C., and Sherman, D. E.: Ice formation by sulfate and sulfuric acid aerosol particles under upper-tropospheric conditions, J. Atmos. Sci., 57, 3752-3766, 2000. (Pubitemid 32122884)
11. Collins, W. D., Rasch, P. J., Boville, B. A., Hack, J. J., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, D. L., Briegleb, B. P., Bitz, C. M., Lin, S. J., and Zhang, M. H.: The formulation and atmospheric simulation of the Community Atmosphere Model version 3 (CAM3), J. Climate, 19, 2144-2161, 2006a. (Pubitemid 43881276)
12. Collins, W. D., Bitz, C. M., Blackmon, M. L., Bonan, G. B., Bretherton, C. S., Carton, J. A., Chang, P., Doney, S. C., Hack, J. J., Henderson, T. B., Kiehl, J. T., Large, W. G., McKenna, D. S., Santer, B. D., and Smith, R. D.: The Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3), J. Climate, 19, 2122-2143, 2006b. (Pubitemid 43881275)
13. Cooper, W. A.: Ice initiation in natural clouds. precipitation enhancement-a scientific challenge, Meteor. Mon., 43, 29-32, 1986.
14. Corti, T., Luo, B. P., Peter, T., Vömel, H., and Fu, Q.: Mean radiative energy balance and vertical mass fluxes in the equatorial upper troposphere and lower stratosphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06802, doi:10.1029/2004gl021889, 2005. (Pubitemid 40771682)
15. Cotton, W. R., Tripoli, G. J., Rauber, R. M., and Mulvihill, E. A.: Numerical simulations of effects of varying ice crystal nucleation rates and aggregation processes on orographic snowfall, J. Clim. App. Met, 25, 1659-1680, 1986.
16. Curry, J. A. and Khvorostyanov, V. I.: Assessment of some parame-terizations of heterogeneous ice nucleation in cloud and climate models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 1151-1172, doi:10.5194/acp-12-1151-2012, 2012.
17. Cziczo, D. J., Murphy, D. M., Hudson, P. K., and Thomson, D. S.: Single particle measurements of the chemical composition of cirrus ice residue during CRYSTAL-FACE, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04201, doi:10.1029/2003jd004032, 2004.
18. DeMott, P. J., Meyers, M. P., and Cotton, W. R.: Parameterization and Impact of Ice Initiation Processes Relevant to Numerical-Model Simulations of Cirrus Clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 51, 1577-1577, 1994.
19. DeMott, P. J., Rogers, D. C., Kreidenweis, S. M., Chen, Y. L., Twohy, C. H., Baumgardner, D., Heymsfield, A. J., and Chan, K. R.: The role of heterogeneous freezing nucleation in upper tropospheric clouds: Inferences from SUCCESS, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1387-1390, 1998.
20. DeMott, P. J., Rogers, D. C., Kreidenweis, S. M., and Chen, Y. L.: Laboratory studies of ice nucleation by aerosol particles in upper tropospheric conditions, Aip. Conf. Proc., 534, 451-454, 2000.
21. DeMott, P. J., Cziczo, D. J., Prenni, A. J., Murphy, D. M., Krei-denweis, S. M., Thomson, D. S., Borys, R., and Rogers, D. C.: Measurements of the concentration and composition of nuclei for cirrus formation, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 14655-14660, doi:10.1073/pnas.2532677100, 2003. (Pubitemid 37517946)
22. DeMott, P. J., Prenni, A. J., Liu, X., Kreidenweis, S. M., Petters, M. D., Twohy, C. H., Richardson, M. S., Eidhammer, T., and Rogers, D. C.: Predicting global atmospheric ice nuclei distributions and their impacts on climate, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 107, 11217-11222, doi:10.1073/pnas.0910818107, 2010.
23. Eidhammer, T., DeMott, P. J., and Kreidenweis, S. M.: A comparison of heterogeneous ice nucleation parameterizations using a parcel model framework, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D06202, doi:10.1029/2008JD011095, 2009.
24. Field, P. R., Wood, R., Brown, P. R. A., Kaye, P. H., Hirst, E., Greenaway, R., and Smith, J. A.: Ice particle interarrival times measured with a fast FSSP, J. Atmos. Ocean Tech., 20, 249-261, 2003. (Pubitemid 37172091)
25. Fletcher, N. H.: Physics of Rain Clouds, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1962.
26. Froyd, K. D., Murphy, D. M., Sanford, T. J., Thomson, D. S., Wilson, J. C., Pfister, L., and Lait, L.: Aerosol composition of the tropical upper troposphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 4363-4385, doi:10.5194/acp-9-4363-2009, 2009.
27. Gettelman, A., Randel, W. J., Wu, F., and Massie, S. T.: Transport of water vapor in the tropical tropopause layer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29, 1009, doi:10.1029/2001gl013818, 2002.
28. Gettelman, A., Fetzer, E. J., Eldering, A., and Irion, F. W.: The Global Distribution of Supersaturation in the Upper Troposphere from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder, J. Climate, 19, 6089-6103, doi:10.1175/jcli3955.1, 2006a. (Pubitemid 46085096)
29. Gettelman, A., Walden, V. P., Miloshevich, L. M., Roth, W. L., and Halter, B.: Relative humidity over Antarctica from radiosondes, satellites, and a general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09S13, doi:10.1029/ 2005jd006636, 2006b. (Pubitemid 43950192)
30. Gettelman, A., Morrison, H., and Ghan, S. J.: A new two-moment bulk stratiform cloud microphysics scheme in the community atmosphere model, version 3 (CAM3). Part II: Single-colunm and global results, J. Climate, 21, 3660-3679, doi:10.1175/2008jcli2116.1, 2008.
31. Gettelman, A., Liu, X., Ghan, S. J., Morrison, H., Park, S., Con-ley, A. J., Klein, S. A., Boyle, J., Mitchell, D. L., and Li, J. L. F.: Global simulations of ice nucleation and ice supersaturation with an improved cloud scheme in the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D18216, doi:10.1029/2009jd013797, 2010.
32. Gierens, K., Schumann, U., Helten, M., Smit, H., and Marenco, A.: A distribution law for relative humidity in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere derived from three years of MOZAIC measurements, Ann. Geophys., 17, 1218-1226, doi:10.1007/s00585-999-1218-7, 1999.
33. Haag, W., Kärcher, B., Ström, J., Minikin, A., Lohmann, U., Ovar-lez, J., and Stohl, A.: Freezing thresholds and cirrus cloud formation mechanisms inferred from in situ measurements of relative humidity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1791-1806, doi:10.5194/acp-3-1791-2003, 2003.
34. Hendricks, J., Kärcher, B., and Lohmann, U.: Effects of ice nuclei on cirrus clouds in a global climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D18206, doi:10.1029/2010JD015302, 2011.
35. Heymsfield, A. J.: On measurements of small ice particles in clouds, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L23812, doi:10.1029/2007gl030951, 2007. (Pubitemid 351247039)
36. Hoyle, C. R., Luo, B. P., and Peter, T.: The origin of high ice crystal number densities in cirrus clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 62, 2568-2579, 2005. (Pubitemid 41522951)
37. Iacono, M. J., Delamere, J. S., Mlawer, E. J., Shephard, M. W., Clough, S. A., and Collins, W. D.: Radiative forcing by long-lived greenhouse gases: Calculations with the AER radiative transfer models, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D13103, doi:10.1029/2008jd009944, 2008.
38. Jensen, E. J., Lawson, P., Baker, B., Pilson, B., Mo, Q., Heyms-field, A. J., Bansemer, A., Bui, T. P., McGill, M., Hlavka, D., Heymsfield, G., Platnick, S., Arnold, G. T., and Tanelli, S.: On the importance of small ice crystals in tropical anvil cirrus, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5519-5537, doi:10.5194/acp-9- 5519-2009, 2009.
39. Jensen, E. J., Pfister, L., Bui, T.-P., Lawson, P., and Baumgardner, D.: Ice nucleation and cloud microphysical properties in tropical tropopause layer cirrus, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 1369-1384, doi:10.5194/acp-10-1369-2010, 2010.
40. Kärcher, B. and Burkhardt, U.: A cirrus cloud scheme for general circulation models, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 134, 1439-1461, doi:10.1002/Qj.301, 2008.
41. Kärcher, B. and Lohmann, U.: A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation: Homogeneous freezing including effects of aerosol size, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4698, doi:10.1029/2001jd001429, 2002a. (Pubitemid 43197281)
42. Kärcher, B. and Lohmann, U.: A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation: Homogeneous freezing of supercooled aerosols, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 107, 4010, doi:10.1029/2001jd000470, 2002b.
43. Kärcher, B. and Lohmann, U.: A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation: Heterogeneous freezing, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4402, doi:10.1029/2002jd003220, 2003.
44. Kärcher, B., Hendricks, J., and Lohmann, U.: Physically based parameterization of cirrus cloud formation for use in global atmospheric models, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D01205, doi:10.1029/2005JD006219, 2006. (Pubitemid 43263784)
45. Kärcher, B., Möhler, O., DeMott, P. J., Pechtl, S., and Yu, F.: Insights into the role of soot aerosols in cirrus cloud formation, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4203-4227, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4203-2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 47293597)
46. Kay, J. E. and Gettelman, A.: Cloud influence on and response to seasonal Arctic sea ice loss, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D18204, doi:10.1029/2009jd011773, 2009.
47. Khvorostyanov, V. I. and Curry, J. A.: A new theory of heterogeneous nucleation for application in cloud and climate models, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 4081-4084, 2000. (Pubitemid 32281803)
48. Khvorostyanov, V. I. and Curry, J. A.: The theory of ice nucleation by heterogeneous freezing of deliquescent mixed CCN. part I: Critical radius, energy and nucleation rate, J. Atmos. Sci, 61, 2676-2691, 2004. (Pubitemid 40042842)
49. Koop, T., Luo, B. P., Tsias, A., and Peter, T.: Water activity as the determinant for homogeneous ice nucleation in aqueous solutions, Nature, 406, 611-614, 2000. (Pubitemid 30641044)
50. Korolev, A. and Isaac, G. A.: Relative humidity in liquid, mixed-phase, and ice clouds, J. Atmos. Sci., 63, 2865-2880, 2006. (Pubitemid 44857514)
51. Krämer, M., Schiller, C., Afchine, A., Bauer, R., Gensch, I., Mangold, A., Schlicht, S., Spelten, N., Sitnikov, N., Borrmann, S., de Reus, M., and Spichtinger, P.: Ice supersaturations and cirrus cloud crystal numbers, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3505-3522, doi:10.5194/acp-9-3505-2009, 2009.
52. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aar-denne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., Mc-Connell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010, 2010.
53. Lawson, R. P.: Effects of ice particles shattering on the 2D-S probe, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 1361-1381, doi:10.5194/amt-4-1361-2011, 2011.
54. Lawson, R. P., O'Connor, D., Zmarzly, P., Weaver, K., Baker, B. A., Mo, Q., and Jonsson, H.: The 2D-S (Stereo) Probe: Design and preliminary tests of a new airborne, high speed, high-resolution particle imaging probe, J. Atmos. Ocean. Tech., 23, 1462-1477, 2006. (Pubitemid 44941204)
55. Liou, K. N.: Influence of Cirrus Clouds on Weather and Climate Processes-a Global Perspective, Mon. Weather Rev., 114, 1167-1199, 1986.
56. Liu, X., Penner, J. E., Ghan, S. J., and Wang, M.: Inclusion of ice microphysics in the NCAR community atmospheric model version 3 (CAM3), J. Climate, 20, 4526-4547, doi:10.1175/Jcli4264.1, 2007. (Pubitemid 47617997)
57. Liu, X., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Zaveri, R., Rasch, P., Shi, X., Lamarque, J.-F., Gettelman, A., Morrison, H., Vitt, F., Conley, A., Park, S., Neale, R., Hannay, C., Ekman, A. M. L., Hess, P., Mahowald, N., Collins, W., Iacono, M. J., Bretherton, C. S., Flan-ner, M. G., and Mitchell, D.: Toward a minimal representation of aerosols in climate models: description and evaluation in the Community Atmosphere Model CAM5, Geosci. Model Dev., 5, 709-739, doi:10.5194/gmd-5-709-2012, 2012.
58. Liu, X., Penner, J. E., and Wang, M.: Influence of anthropogenic sulfate and soot on upper tropospheric clouds using CAM3 coupled with an aerosol model, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D03204, doi:10.1029/2008JD010492, 2009.
59. Liu, X. H. and Penner, J. E.: Ice nucleation parameterization for global models, Meteorol. Z., 14, 499-514, doi:10.1127/0941-2948/2005/0059, 2005.
60. Lohmann, U. and Roeckner, E.: Influence of Cirrus Cloud Radiative Forcing on Climate and Climate Sensitivity in a General-Circulation Model, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 100, 16305-16323, 1995.
61. Lohmann, U., Spichtinger, P., Jess, S., Peter, T., and Smit, H.: Cirrus cloud formation and ice supersaturated regions in a global climate model, Environ. Res. Lett., 3, 045022, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/3/4/045022, 2008.
62. McFarquhar, G. M., Um, J., Freer, M., Baumgardner, D., Kok, G. L., and Mace, G.: Importance of small ice crystals to cirrus properties: Observations from the Tropical Warm Pool International Cloud Experiment (TWP-ICE), Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L13803, doi:10.1029/2007gl029865, 2007. (Pubitemid 47399661)
63. Meyers, M. P., Demott, P. J., and Cotton, W. R.: New Primary Ice-Nucleation Parameterizations in an Explicit Cloud Model, J. Appl. Meteorol., 31, 708-721, 1992. (Pubitemid 23374444)
64. Morrison, H. and Gettelman, A.: A new two-moment bulk stratiform cloud microphysics scheme in the community atmosphere model, version 3 (CAM3). Part I: Description and numerical tests, J. Climate, 21, 3642-3659, doi:10.1175/2008jcli2105.1, 2008.
65. Murray, B. J., Wilson, T. W., Dobbie, S., Cui, Z., Al-Jumur, S. M. R. K., Möhler, O., Schnaiter, M., Wagner, R., Benz, S., Niemand, M., Saathoff, H., Ebert, V., Wagner, S., and Kärcher, B.: Heterogeneous nucleation of ice particles on glassy aerosols under cirrus conditions, Nat. Geosci., 3, 233-237, doi:10.1038/ngeo817, 2010.
66. Neale, R. B., Richter, J. H., and Jochum, M.: The Impact of Convection on ENSO: From a Delayed Oscillator to a Series of Events, J. Climate, 21, 5904-5924, doi:10.1175/2008jcli2244.1, 2008.
67. Neale, R. B., Chen, C.-C., Gettelman, A., Lauritzen, P. H., Park, S., Williamson, D. L., Conley, A. J., Garcia, R., Kinnison, D., Lamarque, J.-F., Marsh, D., Mills, M., Smith, A. K., Tilmes, S., Vitt, F., Cameron-Smith, P., Collins, W. D., Iacono, M. J., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Liu, X., Rasch, P. J., and Taylor, M. A.: Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM 5.0), NCAR Technical Note, http://www.cesm.ucar.edu/models/cesm1.0/cam/docs/ description/cam5 desc.pdf, June 2010.
68. Park, S. and Bretherton, C. S.: The University of Washington Shallow Convection and Moist Turbulence Schemes and Their Impact on Climate Simulations with the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Climate, 22, 3449-3469, doi:10.1175/2008jcli2557.1, 2009.
69. Park, S., Bretherton, C. S., and Rasch, P. J.: Global cloud simulation in the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Climate, submitted, 2012.
70. Peter, T., Marcolli, C., Spichtinger, P., Corti, T., Baker, M. B., and Koop, T.: When dry air is too humid, Science, 314, 1399-1402, doi:10.1126/science.1135199, 2006. (Pubitemid 44872767)
71. Phillips, V. T. J., Donner, L. J., and Garner, S. T.: Nucleation processes in deep convection simulated by a cloud-system-resolving model with double-moment bulk microphysics, J. Atmos. Sci., 64, 738-761, doi:10.1175/Jas3869.1, 2007. (Pubitemid 46554476)
72. Phillips, V. T. J., DeMott, P. J., and Andronache, C.: An empirical parameterization of heterogeneous ice nucleation for multiple chemical species of aerosol, J. Atmos. Sci, 65, 2757-2783, doi:10.1175/2007jas2546.1, 2008.
73. Pruppacher, H. R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of Cloud and Precipitation, Springer, New York, 954 pp., 1997.
74. Ramanathan, V. and Collins, W.: Thermodynamic Regulation of Ocean Warming by Cirrus Clouds Deduced from Observations of the 1987 El-Nino, Nature, 351, 27-32, 1991. (Pubitemid 21896523)
75. Rosenfield, J. E., Considine, D. B., Schoeberl, M. R., and Browell, E. V.: The impact of subvisible cirrus clouds near the tropical tropopause on stratospheric water vapor, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 1883-1886, doi:10.1029/98GL01294, 1998.
76. Slingo, J. M.: The Development and Verification of a Cloud Prediction Scheme for the Ecmwf Model, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 113, 899-927, 1987.
77. Spichtinger, P. and Gierens, K. M.: Modelling of cirrus clouds-Part 1b: Structuring cirrus clouds by dynamics, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 707-719, doi:10.5194/acp-9-707-2009, 2009a.
78. Spichtinger, P. and Gierens, K. M.: Modelling of cirrus clouds-Part 2: Competition of different nucleation mechanisms, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 2319-2334, doi:10.5194/acp-9-2319-2009, 2009b.
79. Szyrmer, W. and Zawadzki, I.: Biogenic and anthropogenic sources of ice-forming nuclei: A review, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 78, 209-228, 1997.
80. Wang, M. and Penner, J. E.: Cirrus clouds in a global climate model with a statistical cirrus cloud scheme, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 5449-5474, doi:10.5194/acp-10-5449-2010, 2010.
81. Wang, P.-H., Minnis, P., McCormick, M. P., Kent, G. S., Yue, G. K., Young, D. F., and Skeens, K. M.: A 6-year climatology of cloud occurence frequency from Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas experiment II observations (1985-1990), J. Geophys. Res, 101, 29407-29429, 1996.
82. Wielicki, B. A., Barkstrom, B. R., Harrison, E. F., Lee, R. B., Smith, G. L., and Cooper, J. E.: Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES): An earth observing system experiment, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 77, 853-868, 1996.
83. Wylie, D. P. and Menzel, W. P.: Eight years of high cloud statistics using HIRS, J. Climate, 12, 170-184, 1999. (Pubitemid 29253341)
84. Young, K. C.: The role of contact nucleation in ice phase initiation in clouds, J. Atmos. Sci, 31, 768-776, 1974.
85. Zender, C., Bian, H., and Newman, D.: Mineral Dust En-trainment and Deposition (DEAD) model: Description and 1990s dust climatology, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4416, doi:4410.1029/2002JD002775, 2003.
86. Zhang, K., Liu, X., Comstock, J. M., Wang, M., Wan, H., and Bui, T. V.: Characteristics of vertical velocity in cirrus clouds and its impact on ice nucleation: evaluation and Inter-comparison of two global climate models, in preparation, 2012.