Biogenic and Anthropogenic Sources of Ice-Forming Nuclei: A Review

Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society

Volumn 78, Issue 2, 1997, Pages 209-228

  Szyrmer, Wanda ^a   Zawadzki, Isztar ^b  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE; BIOGENIC SOURCE; CLOUD MICROPHYSICS; ICE NUCLEUS; PRECIPITATION;

EID: 0031459033     PISSN: 00030007     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1175/1520-0477(1997)078<0209:BAASOI>2.0.CO;2     Document Type: Article

References (177)

1. Abe, K., S. Watabe, Y. Emori, M. Watanabe, and S. Arai, 1989: An ice nucleation active gene of Erwinia ananas. FEBS Lett., 258, 297-300.
2. Al-Naimi, R., and C. P. R. Saunders, 1985: Ice nucleus measurements: Effect of site location and weather. Tellus, 37B, 296-303.
3. Anyz, F., 1980: Effect of industrial polluants on the activity of ice nuclei of natural origin. Comm. à la 8ième Conf. Int. sur la Physique des Nuages, Clermont-Ferrand, France, International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 31-32.
4. Arny, D. C., S. E. Lindow, and C. D. Upper, 1976: Frost sensitivity of Zea mays increased by application of Pseudomonas syringae. Nature, 262, 282-284.
5. Ashworth, E. N., and T. L. Kieft, 1992: Measurement of ice nucleation in lichens using thermal analysis. Cryobiology, 29, 400-406.
6. _, G. A. Davis, and J. A. Anderson, 1985: Factors affecting ice nucleation in plant tissues. Plant Physiol., 79, 1033-1037.
7. Barthakur, N., and J. Maybank, 1963: Anomalous behaviour of some amino-acids as ice nuclei. Nature, 200, 866-868.
8. _, and _, 1966: The growth of ice crystals on amino acid substrates. J. Rech. Atmos., 2-3, 475-485.
9. Bashkirova, G. M., and P. N. Krasikov, 1957: Experiments in studing certain substances as reagents in cristallization of supercooled fog. Trudy Glavnoi Geofiz. Obs., 72, 118-126.
10. Battan, L. J., and J. J. Riley, 1960: Ice crystal nuclei and maritime air. J. Meteor., 17, 675-676.
11. Beard, K. V., 1992: Ice initiation in warm-base convective clouds: An assessment of microphysical mechanisms. Atmos. Res., 28, 125-152.
12. Bigg, E. K., 1973: Ice nucleus measurements in remote areas. J. Atmos. Sci., 30, 1153-1157.
13. _, 1990a: Measurements of concentrations of natural ice nuclei. Atmos. Res., 25, 397-408.
14. _, 1990b: Long-term trends in ice nucleus concentrations. Atmos. Res., 25, 409-415.
15. _, 1996: Ice forming nuclei in the high Arctic. Tellus, 48B, 223-233.
16. _, and G. T. Miles, 1964: The results of large-scale measurements of natural ice nuclei. J. Atmos. Sci., 21, 396-403.
17. _, and C. M. Stevenson, 1970: Comparisons of concentrations of ice nuclei in different parts of the world. J. Rech. Atmos., 4, 41-58.
18. _, and E. Turton, 1986: Delayed effects of cloud seeding with silver iodide. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 25, 1382-1386.
19. Borys, R. D., 1989: Studies of ice nucleation by arctic aerosol on AGASP-II. J. Atmos. Chem., 9, 169-185.
20. _, and R. D. Duce, 1979: Relationships among lead, iodine, trace metals and ice nuclei in a coastal urban atmosphere. J. Appl. Meteor., 18, 1490-1494.
21. _, R. A. Rilling, and P. A. Walsh, 1979: Potential effects of coal-fired power plant emissions on winter orographic clouds. Preprints, Seventh Conf. on Inadvertent and Planned Weather Modification, Banff, Alberta, Canada, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 7-8.
22. Braham, R. R., Jr., and P. Spyers-Duran, 1974: Ice nuclei measurements in an urban atmosphere. J. Appl. Meteor., 13, 940-945.
23. Brier, G. W., and D. B. Kline, 1959: Ocean water as source of ice nuclei. Science, 130, 717-718.
24. Burke, M. J., and S. E. Lindow, 1990: Surface properties and size of the ice nucleation site in ice nucleation active bacteria: Theoretical considerations. Cryobiology, 27, 80-84.
25. Chagnon, S. A., 1968: The La Porte weather anomaly - Fact or fiction? Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 49, 4-11.
26. Cooper, W. A., and G. Vali, 1981: The origin of ice in mountain cap ice. J. Atmos. Sci., 38, 1244-1259.
27. Corotto, L. V., P. K. Wolber, and G. J. Warren, 1986: Ice nucleation activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens: Mutagenesis, complementation analysis and identification of a gene product. EMBO J., 5, 231-236.
28. Czys, R. R., 1977: University of Chicago measurements of ice-forming nuclei from Metromex. Preprints, Sixth Conf. on Inadvertent and Planned Weather Modification, Champaign-Urbana, IL, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 29-32.
29. _, and R. E. Passarelli Jr., 1978: Airborne measurements of ice-forming nuclei upwind and downwind of the Gary, Indiana, steel mills. Preprints, Seventh Conf. on Inadvertent and Planned Weather Modification, Banff, Alberta, Canada, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 24-25.
30. Duce, R. A., V. A. Mohnen, P. R. Zimmerman, D. Grosjean, W. Cautreels, R. Chatfield, R. Jaenicke, J. A. Ogren, E. D. Pellizzari, and G. T. Wallace, 1983: Organic material in the global troposhere. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys., 21, 921-952.
31. Evans, L. F., 1966: Ice nucleation by amino acids. J. Atmos. Sci., 23, 751-752.
32. Fall, R., and R. C. Schnell, 1985: Association of an ice nucleation pseudomonad with cultures of marine dinoflagellate Heterocapa niei. J. Mar. Res., 43, 257-265.
33. Fields, P. G., 1993: Reduction of cold tolerance of stored-product insects by ice-nucleating-active bacteria. Environ. Entomol., 22, 470-476.
34. Fish, B. R., 1972: Electrical generation of natural aerosols from vegetation. Science, 175, 1239-1240.
35. Fletcher, N. H., 1962: The Physics of Rainclouds. Cambridge University Press, 386 pp.
36. _, 1963: Nucleation by crystalline particles. J. Chem. Phys., 38, 237-240.
37. Franks, F., 1985: Biophysics and Biochemistry at Low Temperatures. Cambridge University Press, 210 pp.
38. Fukuta, N., 1966: Experimental studies of organic ice nuclei. J. Atmos. Sci., 23, 191-196.
39. Fullerton, C. M., C. J. Garcia, and G. Langer, 1975: Nine months of ice nucleus monitoring at Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Meteor. Rundsch., 28, 178-190.
40. Garten, V. A., and R. B. Head, 1965: A theoretical basis of ice nucleation by organic crystals. Nature, 205, 160-162.
41. Garvey, D. M., W. G. Finnegan, and L. O. Grant, 1979: Ice nucleating properties of rocket propellant exhausts. Preprints, Seventh Conf. on Inadvertent and Planned Weather Modification, Banff, Alberta, Canada, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 20-21.
42. Gavish, M., R. Popovitz-Biro, M. Lahav, and L. Leiserowitz, 1990: Ice nucleation by alcohols arranged in monolayers at the surface of water drops. Science, 250, 973-974.
43. _, J.-L. Wang, M. Eisenstein, M. Lahav, and L. Leiserowitz, 1992: The role of crystal polarity in alpha-amino acid crystals for induced nucleation of ice. Science, 256, 815-818.
44. Georgakopoulos, D. G., and D. C. Sands, 1992: Epiphytic populations of Pseudomonas syringae on barley. Can. J. Microbiol., 38, 111-114.
45. Georgii, H. W., and E. Kleinjung, 1967: Relations between the chemical composition of atmospheric aerosol particles and the concentration of natural ice nuclei. J. Rech. Atmos., 3, 145-156.
46. Gorzelska, K., J. N. Galloway, K. Watterson, and W. C. Keene, 1992: Water soluble primary amine compounds in rural continental precipitation. Atmos. Environ., 26A, 1005-1018.
47. Govindarajan, A. G., and S. E. Lindow, 1988: Size of bacterial ice-nucleation sites measured in situ by radiation inactivation analysis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 85, 1334-1338.
48. Green, R. L., L. V. Corotto, and G. J. Warren, 1988: Deletion mutagenesis of the ice nucleation gene from Pseudomonas syringae S203. Mol. Gen. Genet., 215, 165-172.
49. Gross, D. C., Y. S. Cody, E. L. Proebsting Jr., G. K. Radamaker, and R. A. Spotts, 1983: Distribution, population dynamics, and characteristics of ice nucleation-active bacteria in deciduous fruit tree orchards. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 46, 1370-1379.
50. Grout, B. W. W., 1987: Higher plants at freezing temperatures. The Effects of Low Temperatures on Biological Systems, B. W. W. Grout and G. J. Morris, Eds., Edward Arnold, 293-314.
51. Hallett, J., B. Gardiner, J. Hudson, and F. Rogers, 1986: Cloud condensation and ice nucleation of a range of carbonaceous aerosols. Preprints, Conf. on Cloud Physics, Snowmass, CO, Amer. Meteor. Soc., 9-12.
52. Head, R. B., 1961: Steroids as ice nucleators. Nature, 191, 1058-1059.
53. Hew, C. L., and D. S. Yang, 1992: Protein interaction with ice. Euro. J. Biochem., 203, 33-42.
54. Hindman, E. E., D. M. Garvey, G. Langer, F. K. Odencrantz, and G. L. Gregory, 1980: Laboratory investigations of cloud nuclei from combustion of space shuttle propellant. J. Appl. Meteor., 19, 175-184.
55. Hirano, S. S., and C. D. Upper, 1989: Diel variation in population size and ice nucleation activity of Pseudomonas syringae on snap bean leaflets. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 55, 623-630.
56. _, S. L. Baker, and C. D. Upper, 1985: Ice nucleation temperature on individual leaves in relation to population sizes of ice nucleation active bacteria and frost injury. Plant Physiol., 77, 259-265.
57. Hobbs, P. V., and J. D. Locatelli, 1969: Ice nuclei from a natural forest fire. J. Appl. Meteor., 8, 833-834.
58. _, and _, 1970: Ice nucleus measurements at three sites in western Washington. J. Atmos. Sci., 27, 90-100.
59. _, M. Fullerton, and G. Bluhm, 1971: Ice nucleus "storms" in Hawaii. Nature, 230, 90-91.
60. Hogan, A. W., 1967: Ice nuclei from direct reaction of iodine vapor with vapors from leaded gasoline. Science, 158, 158.
61. Isidorov, V. A., 1990: Organic Chemistry of the Earth's Atmosphere. Springer-Verlag, 215 pp.
62. Isono, K., M. Komabayasi, and A. Ono, 1959: Volcanoes as a sources of atmospheric ice nuclei. Nature, 183, 317-319.
63. Jayaweera, K. O. L. F., and T. Ohtake, 1973: Concentration of ice crystals in Arctic stratus clouds. J. Rech. Atmos., 7, 199-207.
64. _, and P. Flanagan, 1982: Biogenic ice nuclei in the Arctic atmosphere. Geophys. Res. Lett., 9, 94-97.
65. Kajava, A. V., and S. E. Lindow, 1993: A model of the three-dimensional structure of ice nucleation proteins. J. Molec. Biol., 232, 709-717.
66. Kieft, T. L., 1988: Ice nucleation activity in lichens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 54, 1678-1681.
67. _, and T. Ruscetti, 1990: Characterization of biological ice nuclei from lichen. J. Bacteriol., 172, 3519-3523.
68. _, and _, 1992: Molecular sizes of lichen ice nucleation sites determined by gamma radiation inactivation analysis. Cryobiology, 29, 407-413.
69. Knight, C. A., and A. J. Weinheimer, 1987: Nucleation on cylindrical nuclei. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 119, 599-601.
70. Komabayashi, M., and Y. Ikebe, 1961: Organic ice nuclei: Ice-forming properties of some aromatic compounds. J. Meteor. Soc. Japan, 39, 82-94.
71. Kozloff, L. M., M. A. Schofield, and M. Lute, 1983: Ice nucleating activity of Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia herbicola. J. Bacteriol., 153, 222-231.
72. _, M. Lute, and D. Westaway, 1984: Phosphatidylinositol as a component of the ice nucleating site of Pseudomonas syringae and Erwinia herbicola. Science, 226, 845-846.
73. _, M. A. Turner, and F. Arellano, 1991a: Formation of bacterial membrane ice-nucleating lipoglycoprotein complexes. J. Bacteriol., 173, 6528-6536.
74. _, _, _, and M. Lute, 1991b: Phosphatidylinositol, a phospholipid of ice-nucleating bacteria. J. Bacteriol., 173, 2053-2060.
75. Langer, G., J. Rosinski, and S. Bernsen, 1963: Organic crystals as icing nuclei. J. Atmos. Sci., 20, 557-562.
76. _, _, and C. P. Edwards, 1967: A continuous ice nucleus counter and its application to tracking in the troposphere. J. Appl. Meteor., 6, 114-125.
77. Lee, R. E., Jr., J. M. Strong-Gunderson, M. R. Lee, and E. C. Davidson, 1992: Ice-nucleating active bacteria decrease the cold-hardiness of stored grain insects. J. Econ. Entomol., 85, 371-374.
78. Levin, Z., and S. A. Yankofsky, 1983: Contact versus immersion freezing of freely suspended droplets by bacterial ice nuclei. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 22, 1964-1966.
79. _, and _, 1988: Ice nuclei of biological origin. Atmospheric Aerosols and Nucleation, P. E. Wagner and G. Vali, Eds., Springer-Verlag, 620-633.
80. _,_, D. Pardes, and N. Magal, 1987: Possible application of bacterial condensation freezing to artificial rainfall enhancement. J. Climate Appl. Meteor., 26, 1188-1197.
81. _, N. Sandlerman, A. Moshe, T. Bertold, and S. A. Yankofsky, 1980: Citrus derived bacteria active as freezing nuclei at -2.5°C. Comm. à la 8ième Conf. Intl. sur la Physique des Nuages, Clermont-Ferrand, France, International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 45-47.
82. Lindemann, J., and C. D. Upper, 1985: Aerial dispersal of epiphytic bacteria over bean plants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 50, 1229-1232.
83. _, H. A. Constantinidou, W. R. Barchet, and C. D. Upper, 1982: Plants as sources of airborne bacteria including ice nucleation-active bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 44, 1059-1063.
84. Lindgren, P. B., R. Frederick, A. G. Govindarajan, N. J. Panopoulos, B. J. Staskawicz, and S. E. Lindow, 1989: An ice nucleation reporter gene system: Identification of inducible pathogenicity genes in Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola. EMBO J., 8, 1291-1301.
85. Lindow, S. E., 1982: Population dynamics of epiphytic ice nucleation active bacteria on frost sensitive plants and frost control by means of antagonistic bacteria. Plant Cold-Hardiness and Freezing Stress, Vol. 2, P. H. Li and A. Sakai, Eds., Academic Press, 395-416.
86. _, 1983: The role of bacterial ice nucleation in frost injury to plants. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol., 21, 363-384.
87. _, 1987: Competitive exclusion of epiphytic bacteria by ice -Pseudomonas syringae mutants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 53, 2520-2527.
88. _, 1990: Use of genetically altered bacteria to achieve plant frost control. Biotechnology of Plant-Microbe Interactions, J. P. Nakas and C. Hagedorn, Eds., McGraw-Hill, 85-110.
89. _, D. C. Arny, and C. D. Upper, 1978a: Distribution of ice nucleation-active bacteria on plants in nature. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 36, 831-838.
90. _, _, _, and W. R. Barchet, 1978b: The role of bacterial ice nuclei in frost injury to sensitive plants. Plant Cold-Hardiness and Freezing Stress, Vol. 1, P. H. Li and A. Sakai, Eds., Academic Press, 249-263.
91. _, _, and _, 1982a: Bacterial ice nucleation: A factor in frost injury to plants. Plant Physiol., 70, 1084-1089.
92. _, S. S. Hirano, W. R. Barchet, D. C. Arny, and C. D. Upper, 1982b: Relationship between ice nucleation frequency of bacteria and frost injury. Plant Physiol., 70, 1090-1093.
93. Maki, L. R., and K. J. Willoughby, 1978: Bacteria as biogenic sources of freezing nuclei. J. Appl. Meteor., 17, 1049-1053.
94. _, E. L. Galyan, M. Chang-Chien, and D. Caldwell, 1974: Ice nucleation induced by Pseudomonas syringae. Appl. Microbiol., 28, 456-459.
95. Mandrioli, P., G. K. Puppi, N. Bagni, and F. Prodi, 1973: Distribution of microorganisms in hailstones. Nature, 246, 416-417.
96. Margaritis, A., and A. S. Bassi, 1991: Principles and biotechnological applications of bacterial ice nucleation. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 11, 277-295.
97. Mason, B. J., 1971: The Physics of Clouds. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 660 pp.
98. _, 1996: The rapid glaciation of slighty supercooled cumulus clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 122, 357-365.
99. Mazur, P., 1984: Freezing of living cells: Mechanisms and implications. Amer. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol., 16, C125-C142.
100. McBride, J. M., 1992: Crystal polarity: A window on ice nucleation. Science, 256, 814.
101. Milne, P. J., and R. G. Zika, 1993: Amino acid nitrogen in atmospheric aerosols: Occurrence, sources and photochemical modification, J. Atmos. Chem., 16, 361-398.
102. Moyers, J. L., W. H. Zoller, and R. A. Duce, 1971: Gaseous iodine measurements and their relationship to particulate lead in a polluted atmosphere. J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 95-98.
103. Murty, A. S. R., A. M. Selvam, and P. C. S. Devara, 1985: Ice nucleating characteristics of Capparis Aphylla, an Indian herb. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 329-332.
104. Nemecek-Marshall, M., R. Laduca, and R. Fall, 1993: High-level expression of ice nuclei in a Pseudomonas syringae strain is induced by nutrient limitation and low temperature. J. Bacteriol., 175, 4062-4070.
105. Nicholson, S. E., 1988: Land surface atmosphere interaction: Physical processes and surface changes and their impact. Prog. Phys. Geogr., 12, 36-65.
106. Orser, C., B. J. Staskawicz, N. J. Panopoulos, D. Dahlbeck, and S. E. Lindow, 1985: Cloning and expression of bacterial ice nucleation genes in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol., 164, 359-366.
107. Parker, B. C., 1968: Rain as a source of vitamin B. Nature, 219, 617-618.
108. Parungo, F. P., and J. P. Lodge, 1967: Amino acids as ice nucleators. J. Atmos. Sci., 24, 274-277.
109. _, and J. O. Rhea, 1970: Lead measurement in urban air as relates to weather modification. J. Appl. Meteor., 9, 468-475.
110. _, and P. A. Allee, 1978: Rocket effluent: Its nucleation activity and related properties. J. Appl. Meteor., 17, 1856-1863.
111. _, E. Ackerman, H. Proulx, and R. Pueschel, 1978: Nucleation properties of fly ash in a coal-fired power plant plume. Atmos. Environ., 12, 929-935.
112. Perez, P. J., J. A. Garcia, and J. Casanova, 1985a: Ice nuclei concentrations in Valladolid, Spain, and their relation to meteorological parameters. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 153-158.
113. _, _, and _, 1985b: Ice nuclei concentrations in an urban atmosphere. Atmos. Environ., 19, 993-999.
114. Phelps, P., T. H. Giddings, M. Prochoda, and R. Fall, 1986: Release of cell free ice nuclei by Erwinia herbicola. J. Bacteriol., 167, 496-502.
115. Pouleur, S., C. Richard, J.-G. Martin, and H. Antoun, 1992: Ice nucleation activity in Fusarium acuminatum and Fusarium avenaceum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2960-2964.
116. Power, B. A., and R. F. Power, 1962: Some amino-acids as ice nucleators. Nature, 194, 1170-1171.
117. Pruppacher, H. R., and J. D. Klett, 1978: Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation. D. Reidel, 714 pp.
118. Pueschel, R. F., and G. Langer, 1973: Sugar cane fires as a source of ice nuclei in Hawaii. J. Appl. Meteor., 12, 549-551.
119. _, R. C. Schnell, H. K. Weickmann, and D. L. Wellman, 1979: Aerosol and ice nuclei measurements in the plume of the Homer City, Pennsylvania, power plant. Geophys. Res. Lett., 6, 371-374.
120. Radke, L. F., P. V. Hobbs, and J. L. Stith, 1976: Airborne measurements of gases and aerosols from volcanic vents on Mt. Baker. Geophys. Res. Lett., 3, 93-96.
121. Rangno, A. L., and P. V. Hobbs, 1991: Ice particle concentrations and precipitation development in small polar maritime cumuliform clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 117, 207-241.
122. _, and _, 1994: Ice particle concentrations and precipitation development in small continental cumuliform clouds. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 120, 573-601.
123. Reischel, M. T., 1987: Variation of the activity of ice nuclei upon exposure to ammonium ion and iodine. Tellus, 39B, 363-373.
124. Rogers, D. C., 1993: Measurements of natural ice nuclei with a continuous flow diffusion chamber. Atmos. Res., 29, 209-228.
125. _, 1994: Comments on "Quantifying and minimizing uncertainty of climate forcing by anthropogenic aerosols." Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 75, 2312-2314.
126. _, P. J. DeMott, and L. O. Grant, 1994: Concerning primary ice nuclei concentrations and water supersaturations in the atmosphere. Atmos. Res., 33, 151-168.
127. Rogers, J. S., R. E. Stall, and M. J. Burke, 1987: Low-temperature conditioning of the ice nucleation active bacterium, Erwinia herbicola. Cryobiology, 24, 270-279.
128. Rogers, R. R., and G. Vali, 1978: Recent developments in meteorological physics. Phys. Rep., 48, 65-177.
129. Rosinski, J., 1991: Latent ice-forming nuclei in the Pacific Northwest. Atmos. Res., 26, 509-523.
130. _, 1995: Cloud condensation nuclei as a real source of ice forming nuclei in continental and marine air masses. Atmos. Res., 38, 351-359.
131. _, and F. Parungo, 1966: Terpene-iodine compounds as ice nuclei. J. Appl. Meteor., 5, 119-123.
132. _, G. Langer, C. T. Nagamoto, M. C. Bayard, and F. P. Parungo, 1976: Chemical composition of surfaces of natural ice-forming nuclei. J. Rech. Atmos., 10, 201-210.
133. _, P. L. Haagenson, C. T. Nagamoto, and F. Parungo, 1986: Ice-forming nuclei of maritime origin. J. Aerosol Sci., 17, 23-46.
134. _, _,_, and_, 1987: Nature of ice-forming nuclei in marine air masses. J. Aerosol Sci., 18, 291-309.
135. _,_,_, B. Quintana, F. Parungo, and S. D. Hoyt, 1988: Ice-forming nuclei in air masses over the Gulf of Mexico. J. Aerosol Sci., 19, 539-551.
136. _, C. T. Nagamoto, and M. Y. Zhou, 1995: Ice-forming nuclei over the east China Sea. Atmos. Res., 36, 95-105.
137. Ruggles, J. A., M. Nemecek-Marshall, and R. Fall, 1993: Kinetics of appearance and disappearance of classes of bacterial ice nuclei support and aggregation model for ice nucleus assembly. J. Bacteriol., 175, 7216-7221.
138. Saxena, V. K., 1983: Evidence of the biogenic nuclei involvement in Antarctic coastal clouds. J. Phys. Chem., 87, 4130-4134.
139. Schaefer, V. J., 1966: Ice nuclei from automobile exhaust and iodine vapor. Science, 154, 1555-1557.
140. _, 1968: Ice nuclei from auto exhaust and organic vapors. J. Appl. Meteor., 7, 148-149.
141. _, 1969: The inadvertent modification of the atmosphere by air pollution. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 50, 199-206.
142. Schnell, R. C., 1975: Ice nuclei produced by laboratory cultured marine phytoplankton. Geophys. Res. Lett., 2, 500-502.
143. _, 1977: Ice nuclei in seawater, fog water and marine air off the coast of Nova Scotia: Summer 1975. J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 1299-1305.
144. _, and G. Vali, 1972: Atmospheric ice nuclei from decomposing vegetation. Nature, 236, 163-165.
145. _, and _, 1973: Worldwide source of leaf-derived freezing nuclei. Nature, 246, 212-213.
146. _, and _, 1975: Freezing nuclei in marine waters. Tellus, 27, 321-323.
147. _, and _, 1976: Biogenic ice nuclei: Part I. Terrestrial and marine sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1554-1564.
148. _, and A. C. Delany, 1976: Airborne ice nuclei near an active volcano. Nature, 264, 535-536.
149. _, and S. N. Tan-Schnell, 1982: Kenyan tea litter: A source of ice nuclei, Tellus, 34, 92-95.
150. _, C. C. Van Valin, and R. F. Pueschel, 1976: Atmospheric ice nuclei: No detectable effects from a coal-fired power-plant plume. Geophys. Res. Lett., 3, 657-660.
151. _, B. Wrobel, and S. W. Miller, 1980: Seasonal changes and terrestrial sources of atmospheric ice nuclei at Boulder, Colorado. Comm. à la 8iéme Conf. Intl. sur la Physique des Nuages, Clermont-Ferrand, France, International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, 53-56.
152. Snider, J. R., R. G. Layton, G. Caple, and D. Chapman, 1985: Bacteria as condensation nuclei. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 139-145.
153. Soulage, F. B., 1957: Les noyaux de congélation de l'atmosphère. Ann. Geophys., 13, 103-134.
154. _, 1966: Counting and electron microscope study of European ice nuclei. J. Rech. Atmos., 3, 219-229.
155. Southworth, M. W., P. C. Wolber, and G. J. Warren, 1988: Non-linear relationship between concentration and activity of a bacterial ice nucleation protein. J. Biol. Chem., 263, 15 211-15 216.
156. Stein, D., and H. W. Georgii, 1985: Supersaturation spectra of ice nuclei at different locations in Europe and over the North Atlantic ocean. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 179-184.
157. Storey, K. B., and J. M. Storey, 1988: Freeze tolerance in animals. Physiol. Rev., 68, 27-84.
158. Strong-Gunderson, J. M., R. E. Lee Jr., and M. R. Lee, 1992: Topical application of ice-nucleating-active bacteria decreases insect cold tolerance. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 58, 2711-2716.
159. Telford, J. W., 1960: Freezing nuclei from industrial processes. J. Meteor., 17, 676-679.
160. Turco, R. P., O. B. Toon, R. C. Whitten, and R. J. Cicerone, 1982: Space shuttle ice nuclei. Nature, 298, 830-832.
161. Turner, M. A., F. Arellano, and L. M. Kozloff, 1990: Three separate classes of bacterial ice nucleation structures. J. Bacteriol., 172, 2521-2526.
162. _, _, and _, 1991: Components of ice nucleation structures of bacteria. J. Bacteriol., 173, 6515-6527.
163. Ueno, Y., 1985: Ice nucleation capability of a superficially reacted lead iodide aerosol. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 131-138.
164. Vali, G., 1968: Ice nucleation relevant to the formation of hail. McGill University, Stormy Weather Group, Science Rep. MW-58, 51 pp.
165. _, 1985: Atmospheric ice nucleation - A review. J. Rech. Atmos., 19, 105-115.
166. _, 1991: Nucleation of ice. Atmospheric Particles and Nuclei, G. Götz, E. Mészaros, and G. Vali, Eds., Akadémiai Kiado, 131-192.
167. _, M. Christensen, R. W. Fresh, E. L. Galyan, L. R. Maki, and R. C. Schnell, 1976: Biogenic ice nuclei. Part II: Bacterial sources. J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 1565-1570.
168. Van Valin, C. C., R. F. Pueschel, and F. P. Parungo, 1975: Formation of cloud and ice nuclei by the combustion of crude oil. J. Appl. Meteor., 14, 1200-1203.
169. _, _, _, and R. A. Proulx, 1976: Cloud and ice nuclei from human activities. Atmos. Environ., 10, 27-31.
170. Warren, G. J., 1987: Bacterial ice nucleation: Molecular biology and applications. Biotechnol. Genetic Eng. Rev., 5, 107-135.
171. _, L. Corotto, and P. Wolber, 1986: Conserve repeats in diverged structural genes from two species of Pseudomonas. Nucleic Acids Res., 14, 8047-8060.
172. Wolber, P., and G. Warren, 1989: Bacterial ice-nucleation proteins. Trends Biochem. Sci., 14, 179-182.
173. Yankofsky, S. A., Z. Levin, T. Bertold, and N. Sandlerman, 1981: Some basic characteristics of bacterial freezing nuclei. J. Appl. Meteor., 20, 1013-1019.
174. Young, J. M., 1987: Ice-nucleation on kiwifruit. Ann. Appl. Biol., 111, 697-704.
175. Zagory, D., S. E. Lindow, and J. R. Parmeter Jr., 1983: Toxicity of smoke to epiphytic ice nucleation-active bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 46, 114-119.
176. Zamurs, J., and J.E. Jiusto, 1982: An examination of ice nucleus concentrations in eastern New York State. J. Appl. Meteor., 21, 431-436.
177. Zhao, J., and C. S. Orser, 1990: Conserved repetition in the ice nucleation gene inaX from Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucent. Molec. General Genetics, 223, 163-166.