How relevant is the deposition of mercury onto snowpacks?-Part 1: A statistical study on the impact of environmental factors

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 12, Issue 19, 2012, Pages 9221-9249

  Durnford, D A ^a   Dastoor, A P ^b   Steen, A O ^c,f   Berg, T ^c   Ryzhkov, A ^a   Figueras Nieto, D ^b   Hole, L R ^d   Pfaffhuber, K A ^e   Hung, H ^b  

^a Independent Researcher   (Canada)

^b ENVIRONMENT CANADA   (Canada)

^c NORWEGIAN UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Norway)

^d NORWEGIAN METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Norway)

^e NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR AIR RESEARCH   (Norway)

^f NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE FOR WATER RESEARCH   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE; ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); DRY DEPOSITION; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; MELTWATER; MERCURY (ELEMENT); METHYLMERCURY; PRECIPITATION (CHEMISTRY); SNOWPACK; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS; TOXIC SUBSTANCE; WET DEPOSITION; ZONAL WIND;

EID: 84867683563     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-12-9221-2012     Document Type: Article

References (146)

1. Albert, M. R. and Shultz, E. F.: Snow and firn properties and air-snow transport processes at Summit, Greenland, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2789-2797, 2002. (Pubitemid 34632672)
2. Allan, C. J., Heyes, A., Roulet, N. T., St. Louis, V. L., and Rudd, J. W. M.: Spatial and temporal dynamics of mercury in Precam-brian Shield upland runoff, Biogeochemistry, 52, 13-40, 2001. (Pubitemid 32108931)
3. Anderson, P. S. and Neff, W. D.: Boundary layer physics over snow and ice, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 3563-3582, doi:10.5194/acp-8-3563-2008, 2008.
4. Andersson, M. E., Ga?rdfeldt, K., Wängberg, I., and Strömberg, D.: Determination of Henry's law constant for elemental mercury, Chemosphere, 73, 587-592, doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.05.067, 2008a.
5. Ariya, P. A., Dastoor, A. P., Amyot, M., Schroeder, W. H., Barrie, L., Anlauf, K., Raofie, F., Ryzhkov, A., Davignon, D., Lalonde, J., and Steffen, A.: The Arctic: a sink for mercury, Tellus, Ser. B, 56, 397-403, 2004. (Pubitemid 39565650)
6. Aspmo, K., Temme, C., Berg, T., Ferrari, C., Gauchard, P.-A., Fain, X., and Wibetoe, G.: Mercury in the atmosphere, snow and melt water ponds in the North Atlantic Ocean during Arctic summer, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 4083-4089, 2006. (Pubitemid 44161658)
7. Babyak, M. A.: what you see may not be what you get: A brief, nontechnical introduction to over-fitting in regression-type models, Psychosom. Med., 66, 411-421, 2004. (Pubitemid 38668414)
8. Bales, R. C., Davis, R. E., Stanley, D. A.: Ion elution through shallow homogeneous snow, Water Resour. Res., 25, 1869-1877, 1989. (Pubitemid 20400031)
9. Bales, R. C., Sommerfeld, R. A., and Kebler, D. G.: Ionic tracer movement through a Wyoming snowpack, Atmos. Environ., 24, 2749-2758, 1990. (Pubitemid 20375455)
10. Balogh, S. J., Meyer, M. L., Hansen, N. C., Moncrief, J. F., Gupta, S. C.: Transport of mercury from a cultivated field during snowmelt, J. Environ. Qual., 29, 871-874, 2000. (Pubitemid 30329224)
11. Bartels-Rausch, T., Huthwelker, T., Jöri, M., Gäggeler, H. W., Am-mann, M.: Interaction of gaseous elemental mercury with snow surfaces: laboratory investigation, Environ. Res. Lett., 3, 045009, doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ 3/4/045009 2008.
12. Bartels-Rausch, T., Krysztofiak, G., Bernhard, A., Schläppi, M., Schwikowski, M., and Ammann, M.: Photoinduced reduction of divalent mercury in ice by organic matter, Chemosphere, 82, 199-203, 2011.
13. Beine, H. J., Amoroso, A., Dominé, F., King, M. D., Nardino, M., Ianniello, A., and France, J. L.: Surprisingly small HONO emissions from snow surfaces at Browning Pass, Antarctica, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2569-2580, doi:10.5194/acp-6-2569-2006, 2006. (Pubitemid 44014116)
14. Belsley, D. A., Kuh, E., and Welsch, R. E.: Regression Diagnostics: Identifying Influential Data and Sources of Collinearity, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, USA, 292 pp., 1980.
15. Berg, T., Bartnicki, J., Munthe, J., Lattila, H., Hrehoruk, J., and Mazur, A.: Atmospheric mercury species in the European Arctic: measurements and modeling, Atmos. Environ., 35, 2569-2582, 2001. (Pubitemid 32280223)
16. Berg, T., Sekkesæter, S., Steinnes, E., Valdal, A.-K., and Wibetoe, G.: Springtime depletion of mercury in the European Arctic as observed at Svalbard, Sci. Total Environ., 304, 43-51, 2003. (Pubitemid 36344080)
17. Bishop, K., Lee, Y.-H., Pettersson, C., and Allard, B.: Methylmer-cury output from the Svartberget catchment in Northern Sweden during spring flood, Water Air Soil Poll., 80, 445-454, 1995. (Pubitemid 26443070)
18. Bloom, N. S. and Watras, C. J.: Observations of methylmercury in precipitation, Sci. Total Environ., 87/88, 199-207, 1989.
19. Bottenheim, J. W., Fuentes, J. D., Tarasick, D. W., and Anlauf, K. G.: Ozone in the Arctic lower troposphere during winter and spring 2000 (ALERT2000), Atmos. Environ., 36, 2535-2544, 2002. (Pubitemid 34628348)
20. Brooks, S. B., Saiz-Lopez, A., Skov, H., Lindberg, S. E., Plane, J. M. C., and Goodsite, M. E.: The mass balance of mercury in the springtime arctic environment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L13812, doi:10.1029/2005GL025525, 2006. (Pubitemid 44945972)
21. Brooks, S., Arimoto, R., Lindberg, S., and Southworth, G.: Antarctic polar plateau snow surface conversion of deposited oxidized mercury to gaseous elemental mercury with fractional long-term burial, Atmos. Environ., 42, 2877-2884, 2008a. (Pubitemid 351389357)
22. Brooks, S., Lindberg, S., Southworth, G., and Arimoto, R.: Springtime atmospheric mercury speciation in the McMurdo, Antarctica coastal region, Atmos. Environ., 42, 2885-2893, 2008b. (Pubitemid 351389359)
23. Boutron, C. F., Vandal, G. M., Fitzgerald, W. F., and Ferrari, C. P.: A forty year record of mercury in central Greenland snow, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3315-3318, 1998. (Pubitemid 29123150)
24. Capelli, R., Minganti, V., Chiarini, C., and De Pellegrini, R.: Mercury in snow layers from the Antarctica, Int. J. Environ. An. Ch., 71, 289-296, 1998. (Pubitemid 29298210)
25. Chatterjee, S. and Hadi, A. S.: Influential Observations, High Leverage Points, and Outliers in Linear Regression, Stat. Sci., 1, 379-416, 1986.
26. Christensen, J. H., Brandt, J., Frohn, L. M., Skov, H.: Modelling of mercury in the Arctic with the Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2251-2257, doi:10.5194/acp-4-2251-2004, 2004. (Pubitemid 40077745)
27. Cobbett, F. D., Steffen, A., Lawson, G., and Van Heyst, B. J.: GEM fluxes and atmospheric mercury concentrations (GEM, RGM and Hgp) in the Canadian Arctic at Alert, Nunavut, Canada (February-June 2005), Atmos. Environ., 41, 6527-6543, 2007. (Pubitemid 47314328)
28. Cole, A. S. and Steffen, A.: Trends in long-term gaseous mercury observations in the Arctic and effects of temperature and other atmospheric conditions. Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4661-4672, doi:10.5194/acp-10-4661-2010, 2010.
29. Constant, P., Poissant, L., Villemur, R., Yumvihoze, E., and Lean, D.: Fate of inorganic mercury and methyl mercury within the snow cover in the low arctic tundra on the shore of Hudson Bay (Québec, Canada), J. Geophys. Res., 112, D08309, doi:10.1029/2006JD007961, 2007. (Pubitemid 46939414)
30. Cook, R. D. and Weisberg S.: Residuals and Influence in Regression, Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, New York, USA, 230 pp., ISBN 0-412-24280-0, 1982.
31. Côté, J., Desmarais, J.-G., Gravel, S., Méthot, A., Patoine, A., Roch, M., and Staniforth, A.: The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) Model: Part II-Results, Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 1397-1418, 1998a. (Pubitemid 128597643)
32. Côté, J., Gravel, S., Méthot, A., Patoine, A., Roch, M., and Stan-iforth, A.: The operational CMC-MRB Global Environmental Multiscale (GEM) Model: Part I-Design considerations and formulation, Mon. Weather Rev., 126, 1373-1395, 1998b. (Pubitemid 128597642)
33. Cressman, G. P.: An operational objective analysis system, Mon. Weather Rev., 87, 367-374, 1959.
34. Dastoor, A. P. and Larocque, Y.: Global circulation of atmospheric mercury: A modeling study, Atmos. Environ., 38, 147-161, 2004. (Pubitemid 37474097)
35. Dastoor, A. P., Davignon, D., Theys, N., Van Roozendael, M., Stef-fen, A., and Ariya, P. A.: Modeling dynamic exchange of gaseous elemental mercury at polar sunrise, Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 5183-5188, doi:10.1021/es800291w, 2008.
36. Domine, F., Sparapani, R., Ianniello, A., and Beine, H. J.: The origin of sea salt in snow on Arctic sea ice and in coastal regions, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 4, 2259-2271, doi:10.5194/acp-4-2259-2004, 2004. (Pubitemid 40077746)
37. Domine, F., Albert, M., Huthwelker, T., Jacobi, H.-W., Kokhanovsky, A. A., Lehning, M., Picard, G., Simpson, W. R.: Snow physics as relevant to snow photochemistry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 171-208, doi:10.5194/acp-8-171-2008, 2008.
38. Dommergue, A., Ferrari, C. P., Gauchard, P.-A., and Boutron, C. F.: The fate of mercury species in a sub-arctic snow-pack during snowmelt, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1621, doi:10.1029/2003GL017308, 2003.
39. Dommergue, A., Bahlmann, E., Ebinghaus, R., Ferrari, C., and Boutron, C.: Laboratory simulation of Hg0 emissions from a snowpack, Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 388, 319-327, 2007. (Pubitemid 46675971)
40. Dommergue, A., Larose, C., Fä?n, X., Clarisse, O., Foucher, D., Hintelmann, H., Schneider, D., and Ferrari, C. P.: Deposition of mercury species in the Ny-A? lesund area (79? N) and their transfer during snowmelt, Environ. Sci. Technol., 44, 901-907, doi:10.1021/es902579m, 2010.
41. Douglas, T. A., Sturm, M., Simpson, W. R., Blum, J. D., Alvarez-Aviles, L., Keeler, G. J., Perovich, D. K., Biswas, A., and Johnson, K.: Influence of snow and ice crystal formation and accumulation on mercury deposition to the Arctic, Environ. Sci. Tech-nol., 42, 1542-1551, 2008. (Pubitemid 351416162)
42. Durnford, D. and Dastoor, A.: The behavior of mercury in the cryosphere: A review of what we know from observations, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D06305, doi:10.1029/2010JD014809, 2011.
43. Durnford, D., Dastoor, A., Figueras-Nieto, D., and Ryjkov, A.: Long range transport of mercury to the Arctic and across Canada, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 6063-6086, doi:10.5194/acp-10-6063-2010, 2010.
44. Durnford, D., Dastoor, A., Ryzhkov, A., Poissant, L., Pilote, M., and Figueras-Nieto, D.: How relevant is the deposition of mercury onto snowpacks-Part 2: A modeling study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 9251-9274, doi:10.5194/acp-12-9251-2012, 2012.
45. Ebinghaus, R., Jennings, S. G., Kock, H. H., Derwent, R. G., Manning, A. J., and Spain, T. G.: Decreasing trends in total gaseous mercury observations in baseline air at Mace Head, Ireland from 1996 to 2009. Atmos. Environ., 45, 3475-3480, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.01.033, 2011.
46. Environment Canada: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) Model Verification, available at http://www.weatheroffice.gc.ca/verification/index e.html, 2012.
47. Eyrikh, S., Schwikowski, M., Gäggeler, H. W., Tobler, L., and Pap-ina, T.: First mercury determination in snow and firn from high-mountain glaciers in the Siberian Altai by CV-ICP-MS, J. Phys. IV, 107, 431-434, 2003.
48. Fain, X., Ferrari, C. P., Gauchard, P.-A., Magand, O., and Boutron, C.: Fast depletion of gaseous elemental mercury in the Kongsve-gen Glacier snowpack in Svalbard, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L06826, doi:10.1029/2005GL025223, 2006.
49. Fän, X., Grangeon, S., Bahlmann, E., Fritsche, J., Obrist, D., Dom-mergue, A., Ferrari, C. P., Cairns, W., Ebinghaus, R., Barbante, C., Cescon, P., and Boutron, C.: Diurnal production of gaseous mercury in the alpine snowpack before snowmelt, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D21311, doi:10.1029/ 2007JD008520, 2007.
50. Fä?n, X., Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Albert, M., Battle, M., Arnaud, L., Barnola, J.-M., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., and Boutron, C.: Mercury in the snow and firn at Summit Station, Central Greenland, and implications for the study of past atmospheric mercury levels, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 3441-3457, doi:10.5194/acp-8-3441-2008, 2008.
51. Fän, X., Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Albert, M. R., Battle, M., Severinghaus, J., Arnaud, L., Barnola, J.-M., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., and Boutron, C.: Polar firn air reveals large-scale impact of anthropogenic mercury emissions during the 1970s, P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 106, 16114-16119, doi:10.1073/pnas.0905117106, 2009.
52. Fatnassi, H., Boulard, T., Poncet, C., and Chave, M.: Optimisation of greenhouse insect screening with computational fluid dynamics, Biosyst. Eng., 93, 301-312, 2006. (Pubitemid 43266029)
53. Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Veysseyre, A., Planchon, F., and Boutron, C. F.: Mercury speciation in the French seasonal snow cover, Sci. Total Environ., 287, 61-69, 2002. (Pubitemid 34162457)
54. Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Boutron, C. F., Skov, H., Goodsite, M., and Jensen, B.: Nighttime production of elemental gaseous mercury in interstitial air of snow at Station Nord, Greenland, Atmos. Environ., 38, 2727-2735, 2004. (Pubitemid 38507387)
55. Ferrari, C. P., Gauchard, P.-A., Aspmo, K., Dommergue, A., Ma-gand, O., Bahlmann, E., Nagorski, S., Temme, C., Ebinghaus, R., Steffen, A., Banic, C., Berg, T., Planchon, F., Barbante, C., Cescon, P., and Boutron, C. F.: Snow-to-air exchanges of mercury in an Arctic seasonal snow pack in Ny-A? lesund, Svalbard, Atmos. Environ., 39, 7633-7645, 2005. (Pubitemid 41633946)
56. Ferrari, C. P., Padova, C., Fän, X., Gauchard, P.-A., Dommergue, A., Aspmo, K., Berg, T., Cairns, W., Barbante, C., Cescon, P., Kaleshke, L., Richter, A., Wittrock, F., and Boutron, C.: Atmospheric mercury depletion event study in Ny-Alesund (Svalbard) in spring 2005. Deposition and transformation of Hg in surface snow during springtime, Sci. Total Environ., 397, 167-177, 2008.
57. Fitzgerald, W. F., Mason, R. P., and Vandal, G. M.: Atmospheric cycling and air-water exchange of mercury over mid-continental lacustrine regions, Water Air Soil Poll., 56, 745-767, 1991.
58. Fouquart, Y. and Bonnel, B.: Computations of solar heating of the earth's atmosphere: a new parameterization, Contrib. Atmos. Phys., 53, 35-62, 1980.
59. Garand, L. and Mailhot, J.: The influence of infrared radiation on numerical weather forecasts, in Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Atmospheric Radiation, J146-J151, American Meteorological Society, USA, 1990.
60. Garbarino, J. R., Snyder-Conn, E., Leiker, T. J., and Hoffman, G. L.: Contaminants in Arctic snow collected over Northwest Alaskan sea ice, Water Air Soil Poll., 139, 183-214, 2002. (Pubitemid 34727469)
61. Gbor, P. K., Wen, D., Meng, F., Yang, F., and Sloan, J. J.: Sloan Modeling of mercury emission, transport and deposition in North America, Atmos. Environ., 41, 1135-1149, 2007. (Pubitemid 46038207)
62. Gilmour, C. C. and Henry, E. A.: Mercury methylation in aquatic systems affected by acid deposition, Environ. Pollut., 71, 131-169, 1991.
63. Goulet, R. R., Holmes, J., Page, B., Poissant, L., Siciliano, S. D., Lean, D. R. S., Wang, F., Amyot, M., and Tessier, A.: Mercury transformations and fluxes in sediments of a riverine wetland, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 71, 3393-3406, 2007. (Pubitemid 47017998)
64. Grenfell, T. C. and Maykut, G. A.: The optical properties of ice and snow in the Arctic Basin, J. Glaciol., 18, 445-463, 1977.
65. Hansen, K. M., Halsall, C. J., and Christensen, J. H.: A dynamic model to study the exchange of gas-phase persistent organic pollutants between air and a seasonal snowpack, Environ. Sci. Tech-nol., 40, 2644-2652, doi:10.1021/ es051685b, 2006.
66. Heidam, N. Z., Christensen, J., Wahlin, P., and Skov, H.: Arctic atmospheric contaminants in NE Greenland: levels, variations, origins, transport, transformations and trends 1990-2001, Sci. Total Environ., 331, 5-28, 2004. (Pubitemid 39490361)
67. Hedgecock, I. M., Pirrone, N., and Sprovieri, F.: Chasing quicksilver northward: mercury chemistry in the Arctic troposphere, Environ. Chem., 5, 131-134, 2008. (Pubitemid 351607368)
68. Hicks, J., Marko, K., and Sahulka, D.: Metals in snow columns, in Flin Flon soils study, Tech. Rep. Appendix R, Hudson Bay Mining and Smelting Co., Ltd., Flin Flon, Manitoba, Canada, available at http://www.flinflonsoilsstudy. com/doclibrary.php, 2008.
69. Hirdman, D., Aspmo, K., Burkhart, J. F., Eckhardt, S., Sodemann, H., Stohl, A.: Transport of mercury in the Arctic atmosphere: evidence for a spring-time net sink and summer-time source, Geo-phys. Res. Lett., 36, L12814, doi:10.1029/2009GL038345, 2009.
70. Holmes, C. D., Jacob, D. J., Corbitt, E. S., Mao, J., Yang, X., Tal-bot, R., and Slemr, F.: Global atmospheric model for mercury including oxidation by bromine atoms, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 12037-12057, doi:10.5194/acp-10-12037- 2010, 2010.
71. Jackson, T. A.: Long-range atmospheric transport of mercury to ecosystems, and the importance of anthropogenic emissions-a critical review and evaluation of the published evidence, Environ. Rev., 5, 99-120, 1997. (Pubitemid 127658062)
72. Jitaru, P., Infante, H. G., Ferrari, C. P., Dommergue, A., Boutron, C. F., and Adams, F. C.: Present century record of mercury species pollution in high altitude alpine snow and ice, J. Phys IV, 107, 683-686, doi:10.1051/jp4:20030395, 2003.
73. Jitaru, P., Gabrielli, P., Marteel, A., Plane, J. M. C., Planchon, F. A. M., Gauchard, P.-A., Ferrari, C. P., Boutron, C. F., Adams, F. C., Hong, S., Cescon, P., and Barbante, C.: Atmospheric depletion of mercury over Antarctica during glacial periods, Nat. Geosci., 2, 505-508, doi:10.1038/ngeo549, 2009.
74. Johnson, K. P., Blum, J. D., Keeler, G. J., and Douglas, T. A.: Investigation of the deposition and emission of mercury in arctic snow during an atmospheric mercury depletion event, J. Geo-phys. Res., 113, D17304, doi:10.1029/2008JD009893, 2008.
75. Kain, J. S. and Fritsch, J. M.: A one-dimensional entraining/detraining plume model and its application in convective parameterization, J. Atmos. Sci., 47, 2784-2802, 1990.
76. King, M. D. and Simpson, W. R.: Extinction of UV radiation in Arctic snow at Alert, Canada (82 N), J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12499-12507, 2001.
77. Kirk, J. L., St. Louis, V. L., and Sharp, M. J.: Rapid reduction and emission of mercury deposited into snowpacks during atmospheric mercury depletion events at Churchill, Manitoba, Canada, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 7590-7596, 2006. (Pubitemid 46012550)
78. Krnavek, L., Simpson, W. R., Carlson, D., Domine, F., Douglas, T. A., and Sturm, M.: The chemical composition of surface snow in the Arctic: Examining marine, terrestrial, and atmospheric influences. Atmos. Environ., 50, 349-359, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.11.003, 2012.
79. Kuhn, M.: The nutrient cycle through snow and ice, a review, Aquat Sci., 63, 150-167, 2001. (Pubitemid 32579455)
80. Lahoutifard, N., Sparling, M., and Lean, D.: Total and methyl mercury patterns in Arctic snow during springtime at Resolute, Nunavut, Canada, Atmos. Environ., 39, 7597-7606, 2005. (Pubitemid 41633943)
81. Lahoutifard, N., Poissant, L., and Scott, S. L.: Scavenging of gaseous mercury by acidic snow at Kuujjuarapik, Northern Québec, Sci. Total Environ., 355, 118-126, 2006. (Pubitemid 43143243)
82. Lalonde, J. D., Poulain, A. J., and Amyot, M.: The role of mercury redox reactions in snow on snow-to-air mercury transfer, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 174-178, 2002. (Pubitemid 34072622)
83. Lalonde, J. D., Amyot, M., Doyon, M.-R., and Auclair, J.-C. : Photo-induced Hg(II) reduction in snow from the remote and temperate Experimental lakes Area (Ontario, Canada), J. Geo-phys. Res., 108, 4200, doi:10.1029/2001JD001534, 2003.
84. Lamborg, C. H., Fitzgerald, W. F., Vandal, G. M., and Rolfhus, K. R.: Atmospheric mercury in northern Wisconsin: sources and species, Water Air Soil Poll., 80, 189-198, 1995. (Pubitemid 26436845)
85. Larose, C., Dommergue, A., De Angelis, M., Cossa, D., Averty, B., Marusczak, N., Soumis, N., Schneider, D., and Ferrari, C.: Springtime changes in snow chemistry lead to new insights into mercury methylation in the Arctic, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 74, 6263-6275, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2010.08.043, 2010.
86. Leitch, D. R., Carrie, J., Lean, D., Macdonald, R. W., Stern, G. A., and Wang, F.: The delivery of mercury to the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean by the Mackenzie River, Sci. Total Environ., 373, 178-195, 2007. (Pubitemid 46107629)
87. Lin, C.-J., Pongprueksa, P., Lindberg, S. E., Pehkonen, S. O., Byun, D., and Jang, C.: Scientific uncertainties in atmospheric mercury models I: Model science evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 40, 2911-2928, 2006.
88. Lindberg, S. E., Brooks, S., Lin, C-J., Scott, K., Meyers, T., Chambers, L., Landis, M., and Stevens, R.: Formation of reactive gaseous mercury in the Arctic: Evidence of oxidation of Hg0 to gas-phase Hg-II compounds after Arctic sunrise, Water Air Soil Poll.: Focus, 1, 295-302, 2001.
89. Lindberg, S. E., Brooks, S., Lin, C-J., Scott, K. J., Landis, M. S., Stevens, R. K., Goodsite, M., and Richter, A.: Dynamic oxidation of gaseous mercury in the Arctic troposphere at Polar Sunrise, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 1245-1256, 2002. (Pubitemid 34225948)
90. Loewen, M., Kang, S., Armstrong, D., Zhang, Q., Tomy, G., and Wang, F.: Atmospheric transport of mercury to the Tibetan Plateau, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 7632-7638, 2007. (Pubitemid 350133297)
91. Loseto, L. L., Lean, D. R. S., and Siciliano, S. D.: Snowmelt sources of methylmercury to High Arctic ecosystems, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 3004-3010, 2004. (Pubitemid 38691698)
92. Loux, N. T.: Monitoring cyclical air/water elemental mercury exchange, J. Environ. Monit., 3, 43-48, doi:10.1039/b005545j, 2001. (Pubitemid 32158419)
93. Lu, J. Y., Schroeder, W. H., Barrie, L. A., Steffen, A., Welch, H. E., Martin, K., Lockhart, L., Hunt, R. V., Boila, G., and Richter, A.: Magnification of atmospheric mercury deposition to polar regions in springtime: the link to tropospheric ozone depletion chemistry, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 3219-3222, 2001. (Pubitemid 32931853)
94. Macdonald, R. W., Harner, T., and Fyfe, J.: Recent climate change in the Arctic and its impact on contaminant pathways and interpretation of temporal trend data, Sci. Total Environ., 342, 5-86, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.12.059, 2005. (Pubitemid 40626742)
95. Mann, J. L., Long, S. E., Shuman, C. A., and Kelly, W. R.: Determination of mercury content in a shallow firn core from Greenland by isotope dilution inductively coupled plasma mass spectrome-try, Water Air Soil Poll., 163, 19-32, 2005. (Pubitemid 40848203)
96. Mason, R.: Mercury emissions from natural processes and their importance in the global mercury cycle, in Mercury fate and transport in the global atmosphere, 173-191, Springer USA, 2009.
97. Mason, R. P. and Fitzgerald, W. F.: The distribution and biogeo-chemical cycling of mercury in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. 1, 40, 1897-1924, 1993. (Pubitemid 24430211)
98. Matlab: R2011b Documentation: Statistics Toolbox for Matlab, The Mathworks, Inc., Natick, MA, USA, available at: http://www. mathworks.com/help/ releases/R2011b/toolbox/stats/, 2011.
99. Mitchell, C. P. J., Branfireun, B. A., and Kolka, R. K.: Assessing sulfate and carbon controls on net methylmercury production in peatlands: An in situ mesocosm approach, Appl. Geochem., 23, 503-518, 2008a.
100. Mitchell, C. P. J., Branfireun, B. A., and Kolka, R. K.: Total mercury and methylmercury dynamics in upland-peatland watersheds during snowmelt, Biogeochemistry, 90, 225-241, doi:10.1007/s10533-008-9246-z, 2008b.
101. Mizukami, N. and Perica, S.: Spatiotemporal characteristics of snowpack density in the mountainous regions of the western United States, J. Hydrometeorol., 9, 1416-1426, 2008.
102. Monperrus, M., Tessier, E., Amouroux, D., Leynaert, A., Huonnic, P., and Donard, O. F. X.: Mercury methylation, demethylation and reduction rates in coastal and marine surface waters of the Mediterranean Sea, Mar. Chem., 107, 49-63, 2007. (Pubitemid 47391140)
103. Murozumi, M., Nakamura, S., and Yoshida, Y.: Compile data of chemical compositions in ice cores drilled at Mizuho Station, Mem. Natl. Inst. Polar Res., 10, 167-168, 1978.
104. Nelson, S. J., Johnson, K. B., Weathers, K. C., Loftin, C. S., Fernandez, I. J., Kahl, J. S., and Krabbenhoft, D. P.: A comparison of winter mercury accumulation at forested and no-canopy sites measured with different snow sampling techniques, Appl. Geochem., 23, 384-398, 2008.
105. Olivier, S., Schwikowsk, M., Brütsch, S., Eyrikh, S., Gäggeler, H. W., Lüthi, M., Papina, T., Saurer, M., Schotterer, U., Tobler, L., and Vogel, E.: Glaciochemical investigation of a ice core from Belukha glacier, Siberian Altai, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2019, doi:10.1029/2003GL018290, 2003.
106. Outridge, P. M., Macdonald, R. W., Wang, F., Stern, G. A., and Das-toor, A. P.: A mass balance inventory of mercury in the Arctic Ocean, Environ. Chem, 5, 89-111, doi:10.1071/EN08002, 2008. (Pubitemid 351607364)
107. Pacyna, E. G., Pacyna, J. M., Sundseth, K., Munthe, J., Kindbom, K., Wilson, S., Steenhuisen, F., Maxson, P.: Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020, Atmos. Environ. 44, 2487-2499, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2009.06.009, 2010.
108. Poissant, L., Amyot, M., Pilote, M., and Lean, D.: Mercury water-air exchange over the upper St. Lawrence River and Lake Ontario, Environ. Sci. Technol., 34, 3069-3078, doi:10.1021/es990719a, 2000. (Pubitemid 30649969)
109. Poulain, A. J., Lalonde, J. D., Amyot, M., Shead, J. A., Raofie, F., and Ariya, P. A.: Redox transformations of mercury in an Arctic snowpack at springtime, Atmos. Environ., 38, 6763-6774, 2004. (Pubitemid 39486076)
110. Poulain, A. J., Garcia, E., Amyot, M., Campbell, P. G. C., and Ariya, P. A.: Mercury distribution, partitioning and speciation in coastal vs. inland High Arctic snow, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 71, 3419-3431, 2007a. (Pubitemid 47017997)
111. Poulain, A. J., Roy, V., and Amyot, M.: Influence of temperate mixed and deciduous tree covers on Hg concentrations and pho-toredox transformations in snow, Geochim. Cosmochim. Ac., 71, 2448-2462, 2007b. (Pubitemid 46667505)
112. Risch, M. R., Gay, D. A., Fowler, K. K., Keeler, G. J., Backus, S. M., Blanchard, P., Barres J. A., and Dvonch, J. T.: Spatial patterns and temporal trends in mercury concentrations, precipitation depths, and mercury wet deposition in the North American Great Lakes region, 2002-2008. Environ. Pollut. 161, 261-271, doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2011.05.030, 2012.
113. Ryaboshapko, A., Bullock, R., Christensen, J., Cohen, M., Das-toor, A., Ilyin, I., Petersen, G., Syrakov, D., Artz, R., Davignon, D., Draxler, R., and Munthe, J.: Intercomparison study of atmospheric mercury models: 1. Comparison of models with short-term measurements, Sci. Total Environ., 376, 228-240, 2007a. (Pubitemid 46399913)
114. Ryaboshapko, A., Bullock, R., Christensen, J., Cohen, M., Dastoor, A., Ilyin, I., Petersen G., Syrakov, D., Travnikov, O., Artz, R., Davignon, D., Draxler, R., Munthe, J., and Pacyna, J.: Intercom-parison Study of Atmospheric Mercury Models: 2. Modelling results vs. long-term observations and comparison of country deposition budgets, Sci. Total Environ., 377, 319-333, 2007b. (Pubitemid 46660946)
115. Schroeder, W. H., Anlauf, K. G., Barrie, L. A., Lu, J. Y., Steffen, A., Schneeberger, D. R., and Berg, T.: Arctic springtime depletion of mercury, Nature, 394, 331-332, 1998.
116. Schuster, P. F., Krabbenhoft, D. P., Naftz, D. L., Cecil, L. D., Olson, M. K., Dewild, J. F., Susong, D. D., Green, J. R., and Abbott, M. L.: Atmospheric mercury deposition during the last 270 years: A glacial ice core record of natural and anthropogenic sources, Environ. Sci. Technol., 36, 2303-2310, 2002. (Pubitemid 34595167)
117. Seigneur, C., Abeck, H., Chia, G., Reinhard, M., Bloom, N. S. Prestbo, E., and Saxena, P.: Mercury adsorption to elemental carbon (soot) particles and atmospheric particulate matter, Atmos. Environ, 32, 2649-2657, 1998. (Pubitemid 28351826)
118. Sheppard, D. S., Patterson, J. E., and McAdam, M. K.: Mercury content of Antarctic ice and snow: Further results, Atmos. Environ., 25A, 1657-1660, 1991.
119. Sherman, L. S., Blum, J. D., Johnson, K. P., Keeler, G. J., Barres, J. A., and Douglas, T. A.: Mass-independent fractionation of mercury isotopes in Arctic snow driven by sunlight, Nat. Geosci., 3, 173-177, doi:10.1038/ngeo758, 2010.
120. Shetty, S. K., Lin, C.-J., Streets, D. G., and Jang, C.: Model estimate of mercury emission from natural sources in East Asia, Atmos. Environ., 42, 8674-8685, 2008.
121. Simpson, W. R., Carlson, D., Hönninger, G., Douglas, T. A., Sturm, M., Perovich, D., and Platt, U.: First-year sea-ice contact predicts bromine monoxide (BrO) levels at Barrow, Alaska better than potential frost flower contact, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 621-627, doi:10.5194/acp-7-621-2007, 2007a.
122. Simpson, W. R., von Glasow, R., Riedel, K., Anderson, P., Ariya, P., Bottenheim, J., Burrows, J., Carpenter, L. J., Frieß, U., Good-site, M. E., Heard, D., Hutterli, M., Jacobi, H.-W., Kaleschke, L., Neff, B., Plane, J., Platt, U., Richter, A., Roscoe, H., Sander, R., Shepson, P., Sodeau, J., Steffen, A., Wagner, T., and Wolff, E.: Halogens and their role in polar boundary-layer ozone depletion, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4375-4418, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4375-2007, 2007b. (Pubitemid 47325998)
123. Skov, H., Christensen, J. H., Goodsite, M. E., Heidam, N. Z., Jensen, B., Wahlin, P., and Geernaert, G.: Fate of elemental mercury in the Arctic during atmospheric mercury depletion episodes and the load of atmospheric mercury to the Arctic, Environ. Sci. Technol., 38, 2373-2382, 2004. (Pubitemid 38481042)
124. Slemr, F., Brunke, E.-G., Ebinghaus, R., and Kuss, J.: Worldwide trend of atmospheric mercury since 1995, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4779-4787, doi:10.5194/acp-11-4779-2011, 2011.
125. Snyder-Conn, E., Garbarino, J. R., Hoffman, G. L., and Oelkers, A.: Soluble trace elements and total mercury in Arctic Alaskan snow, Arctic, 50, 201-215, 1997. (Pubitemid 27526273)
126. Sommar, J., Wängberg, I., Berg, T., Ga?rdfeldt, K., Munthe, J., Richter, A., Urba, A., Wittrock, F., and Schroeder, W. H.: Circumpolar transport and air-surface exchange of atmospheric mercury at Ny-A? lesund (79 N), Svalbard, spring 2002, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 151-166, doi:10.5194/acp-7-151- 2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 46103242)
127. Steen, A. O., Berg, T., Dastoor, A. P., Durnford, D. A., Hole, L. R., and Phaffhuber, K. A.: Dynamic exchange of gaseous elemental mercury during polar night and day, Atmos. Environ., 43, 5604-5610, 2009.
128. Steffen, A., Schroeder, W., Bottenheim, J., Narayan, J., and Fuentes, J. D.: Atmospheric mercury concentrations: measurements and profiles near snow and ice surfaces in the Canadian Arctic during Alert 2000, Atmos. Environ., 36, 2653-2661, 2002. (Pubitemid 34628358)
129. Steffen, A., Schroeder, W., Macdonald, R., Poissant, L., and Kono-plev, A.: Mercury in the Arctic atmosphere: An analysis of eight years of measurements of GEM at Alert (Canada) and a comparison with observations at Amderma (Russia) and Kuujjuarapik (Canada), Sci. Total Environ., 342, 185-198, 2005. (Pubitemid 40615293)
130. Steffen, A., Douglas, T., Amyot, M., Ariya, P., Aspmo, K., Berg, T., Bottenheim, J., Brooks, S., Cobbett, F., Dastoor, A., Dommergue, A., Ebinghaus, R., Ferrari, C., Gardfeldt, K., Goodsite, M. E., Lean, D., Poulain, A. J., Scherz, C., Skov, H., Sommar, J., and Temme, C.: A synthesis of atmospheric mercury depletion event chemistry in the atmosphere and snow, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1445-1482, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1445-2008, 2008.
131. St. Louis, V. L., Rudd, J. W. M., Kelly, C. A., and Barrie, L. A.: Wet deposition of methyl mercury in northwestern Ontario compared to other geographic locations, Water Air Soil Poll., 80, 405-414, 1995. (Pubitemid 26443100)
132. St. Louis, V. L., Sharp, M. J., Steffen, A., May, A., Barker, J., Kirk, J. L., Kelly, D. J. A., Arnott, S. E., Keatley, B., and Smol, J. P.: Some sources and sinks of monomethyl and inorganic mercury on Ellesmere Island in the Canadian High Arctic, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 2686-2701, 2005. (Pubitemid 40570295)
133. St. Louis, V. L., Hintelmann, H., Graydon, J. A., Kirk, J. L., Barker, J., Dimock, B., Sharp, M. J., and Lehnherr, I.: Methylated mercury species in Canadian High Arctic marine surface waters and snowpacks, Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 6433-6441, 2007. (Pubitemid 47437983)
134. Sturm, M. and Liston, G. E.: The snow cover on lakes of the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska, U.S.A, J. Glaciol., 49, 370-380, 2003. (Pubitemid 38473582)
135. Sunderland, E. M., Krabbenhoft, D. P., Moreau, J. W., Strode, S. A., and Landing, W. M.: Mercury sources, distribution, and bioavailability in the North Pacific Ocean: Insights from data and models, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 23, GB2010, doi:10.1029/2008GB003425, 2009.
136. Sundqvist, H.: A parameterization scheme for non-convective condensation including prediction of cloud water content, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 104, 677-690, 1978.
137. Susong, D. D., Abbott, M. L., and Krabbenhoft, D. P.: Mercury accumulation in snow on the Idaho National Engineering and Environmental laboratory and surrounding region, southeast Idaho, USA, Environ. Geol., 43, 357-363, 2003. (Pubitemid 36599634)
138. Travnikov, O.: Contribution of the intercontinental atmospheric transport to mercury pollution in the Northern Hemisphere, At-mos. Environ., 39, 7541-7548, 2005. (Pubitemid 41633937)
139. Travnikov, O., Lin, C.-J., Dastoor, A.: Global and Regional Modelling, edited by: Pirrone, N. and Keating, T., in: Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution 2010, Part B: Mercury, Air Pollution Studies No. 18, Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva and United Nations, New York and Geneva, available at: http://www.htap.org/, 2010.
140. Vandal, G. M., Fitzgerald, W. F., Boutron, C. F., and Candelone, J.-P.: Variations in mercury deposition to Antarctica over the past 34,000 years, Nature, 362, 621-623, 1993.
141. Van Oostdam, J., Donaldson, S. G., Feeley, M., Arnold, D., Ayotte, P., Bondy, G., Chan, L., Dewaily, É., Furgal, C. M., Kuhnlein, H., Loring, E., Muckle, G., Myles, E., Receveur, O., Tracy, B., Gill, U., and Kalhok, S.: Human health implications of environmental contaminants in Arctic Canada: A review, Sci. Total Environ., 351-352, 165-246, 2005. (Pubitemid 41741844)
142. Wang, X.-P., Yao, T.-D., Wang, P.-l., Wei-Yang, and Tian, L.-D.: The recent deposition of persistent organic pollutants and mercury to the Dasuopu glacier, Mt. Xixiabangma, central Himalayas, Sci. Total. Environ., 394, 134-143, 2008.
143. Weiss, H. V., Herron, M. M., and Langway Jr., C. C.: Natural enrichments of elements in snow, Nature, 274, 352-353, 1978.
144. Witherow, R. A. and Lyons, W. B.: Mercury deposition in a Polar Desert ecosystem, Environ. Sci. Technol., 42, 4710-4716, 2008. (Pubitemid 351956401)
145. Yue, W., Meneveau, C., Parlange, M. B., Zhu, W., Kang, H. S., and Katz, J.: Turbulent kinetic energy budgets in a model canopy: comparisons between LES and wind-tunnel experiments, Environ. Fluid Mech., 8, 73-95, 2008.
146. Zhao, T. L., Gong, S. L., Bottenheim, J. W., McConnell, J. C., Sander, R., Kaleschke, L., Richter, A., Kerkweg, A., Toyota, K., and Barrie, L. A.: A three-dimensional model study on the production of BrO and Arctic boundary layer ozone depletion, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D24304, doi:10.1029/2008JD010631, 2008.