The role of interoception in addiction: A critical review

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 36, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 1857-1869

  Verdejo Garcia, Antonio ^a,b   Clark, Luke ^b   Dunn, Barnaby D ^c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GRANADA   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF EXETER   (United Kingdom)

^d MRC COGNITION AND BRAIN SCIENCES UNIT   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Addiction; Appraisal; Bodily signals; Craving; Interoception

Indexed keywords

NICOTINE;

ADDICTION; AFFECT; AWARENESS; BEHAVIOR; BRAIN DAMAGE; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN REGION; COGNITION; DRUG ABUSE; FEEDBACK SYSTEM; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; INSULA; INTEROCEPTION; MOTIVATION; PERCEPTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TOBACCO DEPENDENCE;

ANIMALS; AWARENESS; BEHAVIOR, ADDICTIVE; BRAIN; HUMANS; PERCEPTION; REWARD; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 84864818661     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: 18737528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.05.007     Document Type: Review

References (147)

1. Aguilar de Arcos F., Verdejo-Garcia A., Ceverino A., Montanez-Pareja M., Lopez-Juarez E., Sanchez-Barrera M., et al. Dysregulation of emotional response in current and abstinent heroin users: negative heightening and positive blunting. Psychopharmacology 2008, 198:159-166.
2. Aguilar de Arcos F., Verdejo-Garcia A., Peralta-Ramirez M.I., Sanchez-Barrera M., Perez-Garcia M. Experience of emotions in substance abusers exposed to images containing neutral, positive, and negative affective stimuli. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2005, 78:159-167.
3. Alfonso J.P., Caracuel A., Delgado-Pastor L.C., Verdejo-Garcia A. Combined Goal Management Training and Mindfulness meditation improve executive functions and decision-making performance in abstinent polysubstance abusers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2011, 117:78-81.
4. Bagby R.M., Parker J.D., Taylor G.J. The twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale-I. Item selection and cross-validation of the factor structure. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 1994, 38:23-32.
5. Baker T.B., Morse E., Sherman J.E. The motivation to use drugs: a psychobiological analysis of urges. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1986, 34:257-323.
6. Baker T.B., Piper M.E., McCarthy D.E., Majeskie M.R., Fiore M.C. Addiction motivation reformulated: an affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychological Review 2004, 111:33-51.
7. Barrett L.F. Are emotions natural kinds?. Perspectives on Psychological Science 2006, 1:28-58.
8. Barrett L.F., Quigley K.S., Bliss-Moreau E., Aronson K.R. Interoceptive sensitivity and self-reports of emotional experience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 2004, 87:684-697.
9. Bechara A., Damasio A.R., Damasio H., Anderson S.W. Insensitivity to future consequences following damage to human prefrontal cortex. Cognition 1994, 50:7-15.
10. Bechara A., Damasio H. Decision-making and addiction (part I): impaired activation of somatic states in substance dependent individuals when pondering decisions with negative future consequences. Neuropsychologia 2002, 40:1675-1689.
11. Bechara A., Dolan S., Hindes A. Decision-making and addiction (part II): myopia for the future or hypersensitivity to reward?. Neuropsychologia 2002, 40:1690-1705.
12. Bergquist K.L., Fox H.C., Sinha R. Self-reports of interoceptive responses during stress and drug cue-related experiences in cocaine- and alcohol-dependent individuals. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 2010, 18:229-237.
13. Bolla K.I., Eldreth D.A., London E.D., Kiehl K.A., Mouratidis M., Contoreggi C., et al. Orbitofrontal cortex dysfunction in abstinent cocaine abusers performing a decision-making task. Neuroimage 2003, 19:1085-1094.
14. Bonson K.R., Grant S.J., Contoreggi C.S., Links J.M., Metcalfe J., Weyl H.L., et al. Neural systems and cue-induced cocaine craving. Neuropsychopharmacology 2002, 26:376-386.
15. Cabanac M. Physiological role of pleasure. Science 1971, 173:1103-1107.
16. Cabanac M. Regulation and the ponderostat. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 2001, 25(Suppl. 5):S7L 12.
17. Cameron O.G. Interoception: the inside story-a model for psychosomatic processes. Psychosomatic Medicine 2001, 63:697-710.
18. Cannon W.B. The James-Lange theory of emotions: a critical examination and an alternative theory. By Walter B. Cannon, 1927. American Journal of Psychology 1987, 100:567-586.
19. Carter B.L., Tiffany S.T. Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction 1999, 94:327-340.
20. Cheetham A., Allen N.B., Yucel M., Lubman D.I. The role of affective dysregulation in drug addiction. Clinical Psychology Review 2010, 30:621-634.
21. Childress A.R., Ehrman R.N., Wang Z., Li Y., Sciortino N., Hakun J., et al. Prelude to passion: limbic activation by unseen drug and sexual cues. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e1506.
22. Clark L., Bechara A., Damasio H., Aitken M.R., Sahakian B.J., Robbins T.W. Differential effects of insular and ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions on risky decision-making. Brain 2008, 131:1311-1322.
23. Clore G.L., Huntsinger J.R. How emotions inform judgment and regulate thought. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2007, 11:393-399.
24. Contreras M., Ceric F., Torrealba F. Inactivation of the interoceptive insula disrupts drug craving and malaise induced by lithium. Science 2007, 318:655-658.
25. Craig A.D. How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2002, 3:655-666.
26. Craig A.D. How do you feel-now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2009, 10:59-70.
27. Craig A.D., Chen K., Bandy D., Reiman E.M. Thermosensory activation of insular cortex. Nature Neuroscience 2000, 3:184-190.
28. Critchley H.D., Wiens S., Rotshtein P., Ohman A., Dolan R.J. Neural systems supporting interoceptive awareness. Nature Neuroscience 2004, 7:189-195.
29. Dalgleish T., Dunn B.D., Mobbs D. Affective neuroscience: past, present, and future. Emotion Review 2009, 1:355-368.
30. Damasio A. Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain 1994, G.P. Putnam, New York.
31. Damasio A.R., Grabowski T.J., Bechara A., Damasio H., Ponto L.L., Parvizi J., et al. Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions. Nature Neuroscience 2000, 3:1049-1056.
32. Daniel J., Cropley M., Ussher M., West R. Acute effects of a short bout of moderate versus light intensity exercise versus inactivity on tobacco withdrawal symptoms in sedentary smokers. Psychopharmacology 2004, 174:320-326.
33. Darsow U., Drzezga A., Frisch M., Munz F., Weilke F., Bartenstein P., et al. Processing of histamine-induced itch in the human cerebral cortex: a correlation analysis with dermal reactions. Journal of Investigative Dermatology 2000, 115:1029-1033.
34. Ditre J.W., Brandon T.H. Pain as a motivator of smoking: effects of pain induction on smoking urge and behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 2008, 117:467-472.
35. Dom G., Sabbe B., Hulstijn W., van den Brink W. Substance use disorders and the orbitofrontal cortex: systematic review of behavioural decision-making and neuroimaging studies. British Journal of Psychiatry 2005, 187:209-220.
36. Dorard G., Berthoz S., Haviland M.G., Phan O., Corcos M., Bungener C. Multimethod alexithymia assessment in adolescents and young adults with a cannabis use disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 2008, 49:585-592.
37. Dunn B.D., Dalgleish T., Lawrence A.D. The somatic marker hypothesis: a critical evaluation. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2006, 30:239-271.
38. Dunn B.D., Dalgleish T., Ogilvie A.D., Lawrence A.D. Heartbeat perception in depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2007, 45:1921-1930.
39. Dunn, B.D., Evans, D., Makarova, D., White, J., Clark, L., 2012. Gut feelings and the reaction to perceived inequity: the interplay between bodily responses, regulation and perception shapes the rejection of unfair offers on the Ultimatum Game. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience [Epub ahead of print].
40. Dunn B.D., Stefanovitch I., Evans D., Oliver C., Hawkins A., Dalgleish T. Can you feel the beat? Interoceptive awareness is an interactive function of anxiety- and depression-specific symptom dimensions. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2010, 48:1133-1138.
41. Dunn B.D., Galton H., Morgan R., Evans D., Oliver C., Meyer M., et al. Listening to your heart: how interoception shapes emotion experience and intuitive decision making. Psychological Science 2010, 21:1835-1844.
42. Ehlers A., Breuer P. Increased cardiac awareness in panic disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 1992, 101:371-382.
43. Epstein D.H., Willner-Reid J., Vahabzadeh M., Mezghanni M., Lin J.L., Preston K.L. Real-time electronic diary reports of cue exposure and mood in the hours before cocaine and heroin craving and use. Archives of General Psychiatry 2009, 66:88-94.
44. Ernst M., Grant S.J., London E.D., Contoreggi C.S., Kimes A.S., Spurgeon L. Decision making in adolescents with behavior disorders and adults with substance abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry 2003, 160:33-40.
45. Everitt B.J., Belin D., Economidou D., Pelloux Y., Dalley J.W., Robbins T.W. Neural mechanisms underlying the vulnerability to develop compulsive drug-seeking habits and addiction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 2008, 363:3125-3135. (review).
46. Ferguson E., Bibby P.A., Rosamond S., O'Grady C., Parcell A., Amos C., et al. Alexithymia, cumulative feedback, and differential response patterns on the Iowa Gambling Task. Journal of Personality 2009, 77:883-902.
47. Fishbein D.H., Eldreth D.L., Hyde C., Matochik J.A., London E.D., Contoreggi C., et al. Risky decision making and the anterior cingulate cortex in abstinent drug abusers and nonusers. Brain Research. Cognitive Brain Research 2005, 23:119-136.
48. Fox H.C., Hong K.I., Siedlarz K., Sinha R. Enhanced sensitivity to stress and drug/alcohol craving in abstinent cocaine-dependent individuals compared to social drinkers. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33:796-805.
49. Garavan H. Insula and drug cravings. Brain Structure and Function 2010, 214:593-601.
50. Gauvin D.V., Carl K.L., Goulden K.L., Holloway F.A. Cross-generalization between drug discriminative stimuli and conditioned safety and danger cues. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 1993, 1:133-141.
51. Gerra G., Baldaro B., Zaimovic A., Moi G., Bussandri M., Raggi M.A., et al. Neuroendocrine responses to experimentally-induced emotions among abstinent opioid-dependent subjects. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2003, 71:25-35.
52. Goldstein D., Fink D., Mettee D.R. Cognition of arousal and actual arousal as determinants of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1972, 21:41-51.
53. Goldstein R.Z., Craig A.D., Bechara A., Garavan H., Childress A.R., Paulus M.P., et al. The neurocircuitry of impaired insight in drug addiction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2009, 13:372-380.
54. Gray M.A., Critchley H.D. Interoceptive basis to craving. Neuron 2007, 54:183-186.
55. Harro J., Vasar E. Cholecystokinin-induced anxiety: how is it reflected in studies on exploratory behaviour?. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 1991, 15:473-477.
56. Heims H.C., Critchley H.D., Dolan R., Mathias C.J., Cipolotti L. Social and motivational functioning is not critically dependent on feedback of autonomic responses: neuropsychological evidence from patients with pure autonomic failure. Neuropsychologia 2004, 42:1979-1988.
57. Herbert B.M., Herbert C., Pollatos O. On the relationship between interoceptive awareness and alexithymia: is interoceptive awareness related to emotional awareness?. Journal of Personality 2011, 79:1149-1175.
58. Herbert B.M., Pollatos O., Flor H., Enck P., Schandry R. Cardiac awareness and autonomic cardiac reactivity during emotional picture viewing and mental stress. Psychophysiology 2010, 47:342-354.
59. Hirschman R., Clark M., Hawk G. Relative effects of bogus physiological feedback and control stimuli on autonomic and self report indicants of emotional attribution. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 1977, 3:270-275.
60. Hohmann G.W. Some effects of spinal cord lesions on experienced emotional feelings. Psychophysiology 1966, 3:143-156.
61. Hollis J.H., McKinley M.J., D'Souza M., Kampe J., Oldfield B.J. The trajectory of sensory pathways from the lamina terminalis to the insular and cingulate cortex: a neuroanatomical framework for the generation of thirst. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 2008, 294:R1390-R1401.
62. Houghton L.A., Calvert E.L., Jackson N.A., Cooper P., Whorwell P.J. Visceral sensation and emotion: a study using hypnosis. Gut 2002, 51:701-704.
63. Ibanez A., Gleichgerrcht E., Manes F. Clinical effects of insular damage in humans. Brain Structure and Function 2010, 214:397-410.
64. Jackson P.L., Brunet E., Meltzoff A.N., Decety J. Empathy examined through the neural mechanisms involved in imagining how I feel versus how you feel pain. Neuropsychologia 2006, 44:752-761.
65. James W. The physical basis of emotion. Psychological Review 1894, 1:516-529.
66. Junghanns K., Tietz U., Dibbelt L., Kuether M., Jurth R., Ehrenthal D., et al. Attenuated salivary cortisol secretion under cue exposure is associated with early relapse. Alcohol and Alcoholism 2005, 40:80-85.
67. Keller D.S., Wilson A. Affectivity in cocaine and opiate abusers. Psychiatry 1994, 57:333-347.
68. Klein T.A., Endrass T., Kathmann N., Neumann J., von Cramon D.Y., Ullsperger M. Neural correlates of error awareness. Neuroimage 2007, 34:1774-1781.
69. Kober, H., Kross, E.F., Mischel, W., Hart, C.L., Ochsner, K.N., 2009. Regulation of craving by cognitive strategies in cigarette smokers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence.
70. Koob G.F., Volkow N.D. Neurocircuitry of addiction. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35:217-238.
71. Kuhnen C.M., Knutson B. The neural basis of financial risk taking. Neuron 2005, 47:763-770.
72. Lamm C., Singer T. The role of anterior insular cortex in social emotions. Brain Structure and Function 2010, 214:579-591.
73. Lane R.D., Ahern G.L., Schwartz G.E., Kaszniak A.W. Is alexithymia the emotional equivalent of blindsight?. Biological Psychiatry 1997, 42:834-844.
74. Lazarus R.S. Cognition and motivation in emotion. American Psychologist 1991, 46:352-367.
75. Li C.S., Sinha R. Alexithymia and stress-induced brain activation in cocaine-dependent men and women. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience 2006, 31:115-121.
76. Loas G., Fremaux D., Otmani O., Lecercle C., Delahousse J. Is alexithymia a negative factor for maintaining abstinence? A follow-up study. Comprehensive Psychiatry 1997, 38:296-299.
77. Lubman D.I., Yucel M., Kettle J.W., Scaffidi A., Mackenzie T., Simmons J.G., et al. Responsiveness to drug cues and natural rewards in opiate addiction: associations with later heroin use. Archives of General Psychiatry 2009, 66:205-212.
78. Marshall G.D., Zimbardo P.G. Affective consequences of inadequately explained physiological arousal. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1976, 37:970-988.
79. Matthias E., Schandry R., Duschek S., Pollatos O. On the relationship between interoceptive awareness and the attentional processing of visual stimuli. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2009, 72:154-159.
80. Meissner K., Wittmann M. Body signals, cardiac awareness, and the perception of time. Biological Psychology 2011, 86:289-297.
81. Mihindou C., Vouillac C., Koob G.F., Ahmed S.H. Preclinical validation of a novel cocaine exposure therapy for relapse prevention. Biological Psychiatry 2011, 70:593-598.
82. Moeller S.J., Maloney T., Parvaz M.A., Alia-Klein N., Woicik P.A., Telang F., et al. Impaired insight in cocaine addiction: laboratory evidence and effects on cocaine-seeking behaviour. Brain 2010, 133:1484-1493.
83. Montoya P., Schandry R. Emotional experience and heartbeat perception in patients with spinal cord injury and control subjects. Journal of Psychophysiology 1994, 8:289-296.
84. Moors A. Theories of emotion causation: a review. Cogn Emotion 2009, 23:625-662.
85. Naqvi N.H., Bechara A. The hidden island of addiction: the insula. Trends in Neurosciences 2009, 32:56-67.
86. Naqvi N.H., Bechara A. The insula and drug addiction: an interoceptive view of pleasure, urges, and decision-making. Brain Structure and Function 2010, 214:435-450.
87. Naqvi N.H., Rudrauf D., Damasio H., Bechara A. Damage to the insula disrupts addiction to cigarette smoking. Science 2007, 315:531-534.
88. O'Carroll R.E., Papps B.P. Decision making in humans: the effect of manipulating the central noradrenergic system. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry 2003, 74:376-378.
89. Ooteman W., Koeter M.W., Verheul R., Schippers G.M., van den Brink W. The effect of naltrexone and acamprosate on cue-induced craving, autonomic nervous system and neuroendocrine reactions to alcohol-related cues in alcoholics. European Neuropsychopharmacology 2007, 17:558-566.
90. Ooteman W., Koeter M.W., Vserheul R., Schippers G.M., van den Brink W. Measuring craving: an attempt to connect subjective craving with cue reactivity. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research 2006, 30:57-69.
91. Park R.J., Dunn B.D., Barnard P.J. Schematic models and modes of mind in anorexia nervosa I: a novel process account. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 2011, 4:415-437.
92. Park R.J., Dunn B.D., Barnard P.J. Schematic models and modes of mind in anorexia nervosa. II: implications for treatment and course. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy 2012, 5:86-98. 10.1521/ijct.2012.5.1.86.
93. Parkinson B., Manstead A.S. An examination of the role played by meaning of feedback and attention to feedback in the Valins effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1981, 40:239-245.
94. Passetti F., Clark L., Mehta M.A., Joyce E., King M. Neuropsychological predictors of clinical outcome in opiate addiction. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2008, 94:82-91.
95. Paulus M.P., Stein M.B. Interoception in anxiety and depression. Brain Structure and Function 2010, 214:451-463.
96. Paulus M.P., Tapert S.F., Schulteis G. The role of interoception and alliesthesia in addiction. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 2009, 94:1-7.
97. Pelchat M.L., Johnson A., Chan R., Valdez J., Ragland J.D. Images of desire: food-craving activation during fMRI. Neuroimage 2004, 23:1486-1493.
98. Ploghaus A., Tracey I., Gati J.S., Clare S., Menon R.S., Matthews P.M., et al. Dissociating pain from its anticipation in the human brain. Science 1999, 284:1979-1981.
99. Pollatos O., Schandry R. Emotional processing and emotional memory are modulated by interoceptive awareness. Cognition & Emotion 2008, 22:272-287.
100. Pollatos O., Schubo A., Herbert B.M., Matthias E., Schandry R. Deficits in early emotional reactivity in alexithymia. Psychophysiology 2008, 45:839-846.
101. Posserud I., Agerforz P., Ekman R., Bjornsson E.S., Abrahamsson H., Simren M. Altered visceral perceptual and neuroendocrine response in patients with irritable bowel syndrome during mental stress. Gut 2004, 53:1102-1108.
102. Preuschoff K., Quartz S.R., Bossaerts P. Human insula activation reflects risk prediction errors as well as risk. Journal of Neuroscience 2008, 28:2745-2752.
103. Prinz J. Which emotions are basic?. Emotion, Evolution, and Rationality 2004, Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. D. Evans, P. Cruse (Eds.).
104. Razran G. The observable unconscious and the inferable conscious in current Soviet psychophysiology: interoceptive conditioning, semantic conditioning, and the orienting reflex. Psychological Review 1961, 68:1-147.
105. Redish A.D., Jensen S., Johnson A., Kurth-Nelson Z. Reconciling reinforcement learning models with behavioral extinction and renewal: implications for addiction, relapse, and problem gambling. Psychological Review 2007, 114:784-805.
106. Ren Z.Y., Shi J., Epstein D.H., Wang J., Lu L. Abnormal pain response in pain-sensitive opiate addicts after prolonged abstinence predicts increased drug craving. Psychopharmacology 2009, 204:423-429.
107. Robinson T.E., Berridge K.C. Addiction. Annual Review of Psychology 2003, 54:25-53.
108. Rosenberg H. Clinical and laboratory assessment of the subjective experience of drug craving. Clinical Psychology Review 2009, 29:519-534.
109. Sanfey A.G., Rilling J.K., Aronson J.A., Nystrom L.E., Cohen J.D. The neural basis of economic decision-making in the Ultimatum Game. Science 2003, 300:1755-1758.
110. Schachter S., Singer J.E. Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Psychological Review 1962, 69:379-399.
111. Schandry R. Heart beat perception and emotional experience. Psychophysiology 1981, 18:483-488.
112. Scherer K.R. Feelings integrate the central representation of appraisal-driven response organization in emotion. Feelings and Emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium 2004, CUP, Cambridge, U.K. A.S. Manstead, N.H. Frijda (Eds.).
113. Siegel S. The role of conditioning in drug tolerance and addiction. Psychopathology in Animals: Research and Treatment Implications 1979, 143-168. Academic Press, New York. J.D. Keehn (Ed.).
114. Siegel S. Learning and the wisdom of the body. Learning and Behavior 2008, 36:242-252.
115. Siep N., Roefs A., Roebroeck A., Havermans R., Bonte M.L., Jansen A. Hunger is the best spice: an fMRI study of the effects of attention, hunger and calorie content on food reward processing in the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex. Behavioural Brain Research 2009, 198:149-158.
116. Simmons A., Matthews S.C., Stein M.B., Paulus M.P. Anticipation of emotionally aversive visual stimuli activates right insula. Neuroreport 2004, 15:2261-2265.
117. Singer T., Critchley H.D., Preuschoff K. A common role of insula in feelings, empathy and uncertainty. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2009, 13:334-340.
118. Singleton E.G., Gorelick D.A. Mechanisms of alcohol craving and their clinical implications. Recent Developments in Alcoholism 1998, 14:177-195.
119. Sinha R., Fox H.C., Hong K.A., Bergquist K., Bhagwagar Z., Siedlarz K.M. Enhanced negative emotion and alcohol craving, and altered physiological responses following stress and cue exposure in alcohol dependent individuals. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 34:1198-1208.
120. Skinner M.D., Aubin H.J. Craving's place in addiction theory: contributions of the major models. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2010, 34:606-623.
121. Small D.M., Zatorre R.J., Dagher A., Evans A.C., Jones-Gotman M. Changes in brain activity related to eating chocolate: from pleasure to aversion. Brain 2001, 124:1720-1733.
122. Solomon R.L. The opponent-process theory of acquired motivation: the costs of pleasure and the benefits of pain. American Psychologist 1980, 35:691-712.
123. Spencer D.G., Yaden S., Lal H. Behavioral and physiological detection of classically-conditioned blood pressure reduction. Psychopharmacology 1988, 95:25-28.
124. Stern R.M., Botto R.W., Herrick C.D. Behavioral and physiological effects of false heart rate feedback: a replication and extension. Psychophysiology 1972, 9:21-29.
125. Stevens S., Gerlach A.L., Cludius B., Silkens A., Craske M.G., Hermann C. Heartbeat perception in social anxiety before and during speech anticipation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2011, 49:138-143.
126. Stewart J., de Wit H., Eikelboom R. Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the self-administration of opiates and stimulants. Psychological Review 1984, 91:251-268.
127. Szegedi A., Lorch B., Scheurich A., Ruppe A., Hautzinger M., Wetzel H. Cue exposure in alcohol dependent patients: preliminary evidence for different types of cue reactivity. Journal of Neural Transmission 2000, 107:721-730.
128. Thorberg F.A., Young R.M., Sullivan K.A., Lyvers M. Alexithymia and alcohol use disorders: a critical review. Addictive Behaviors 2009, 34:237-245.
129. Tiffany S.T., Conklin C.A. A cognitive processing model of alcohol craving and compulsive alcohol use. Addiction 2000, 95(Suppl. 2):S145L 153.
130. Troisi A., Pasini A., Saracco M., Spalletta G. Psychiatric symptoms in male cannabis users not using other illicit drugs. Addiction 1998, 93:487-492.
131. Ussher M., Cropley M., Playle S., Mohidin R., West R. Effect of isometric exercise and body scanning on cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms. Addiction 2009, 104:1251-1257.
132. Ussher M., Sampuran A.K., Doshi R., West R., Drummond D.C. Acute effect of a brief bout of exercise on alcohol urges. Addiction 2004, 99:1542-1547.
133. Valins S. Cognitive effects of false heart-rate feedback. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1966, 4:400-408.
134. Verdejo-Garcia A., Bechara A. A somatic marker theory of addiction. Neuropharmacology 2009, 56(Suppl. 1):48-62.
135. Verdejo-Garcia A., Lawrence A.J., Clark L. Impulsivity as a vulnerability marker for substance-use disorders: review of findings from high-risk research, problem gamblers and genetic association studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 2008, 32:777-810.
136. Verheul R., van den Brink W., Geerlings P. A three-pathway psychobiological model of craving for alcohol. Alcohol and Alcoholism 1999, 34:197-222.
137. Wang G.J., Volkow N.D., Fowler J.S., Cervany P., Hitzemann R.J., Pappas N.R., et al. Regional brain metabolic activation during craving elicited by recall of previous drug experiences. Life Sciences 1999, 64:775-784.
138. Wang Z., Faith M., Patterson F., Tang K., Kerrin K., Wileyto E.P., et al. Neural substrates of abstinence-induced cigarette cravings in chronic smokers. Journal of Neuroscience 2007, 27:14035-14040.
139. Wells A., Papageorgiou C. Social phobic interoception: effects of bodily information on anxiety, beliefs and self-processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy 2001, 39:1-11.
140. Werner N., Duschek S., Mattern M., Schandry R. The relationship between pain perception and interoception. Journal of Psychophysiology 2009, 23:35-42.
141. Werner N.S., Jung K., Duschek S., Schandry R. Enhanced cardiac perception is associated with benefits in decision-making. Psychophysiology 2009, 46:1123-1129.
142. Westman E.C., Behm F.M., Rose J.E. Dissociating the nicotine and airway sensory effects of smoking. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 1996, 53:309-315.
143. Wiens S. Interoception in emotional experience. Current Opinion in Neurology 2005, 18:442-447.
144. Wiens S., Mezzacappa E.S., Katkin E.S. Heartbeat detection and the experience of emotions. Cognition and Emotion 2000, 14:417-427.
145. Wikler A. Conditioning factors in opiate addiction and relapse. Narcotics 1965, 7-21. McGraw Hill, New York. D.I. Willner, G.G. Kassebaum (Eds.).
146. Wild J., Clark D.M., Ehlers A., McManus F. Perception of arousal in social anxiety: effects of false feedback during a social interaction. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 2008, 39:102-116.
147. Wise R.A., Wang B., You Z.B. Cocaine serves as a peripheral interoceptive conditioned stimulus for central glutamate and dopamine release. PLoS ONE 2008, 3:e2846.