The origins of commitment Truman and west Berlin

Journal of Cold War Studies

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 180-212

  Larson, Deborah Welch ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 84864688133     PISSN: 15203972     EISSN: 15313298     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1162/JCWS_a_00074     Document Type: Article

References (206)

1. On 13 April 1948 the political adviser to the United States Military Governor of Germany, Robert Murphy, cabled John Hickerson that he worried about the "strength of determination in Washington" to maintain the U.S. position in Berlin "in view [of the] unfavorable logistics [of ] this situation, its expenses, and assuming dissolution the Control Council, lack of specific purpose for our presence here." See U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1948, Vol. II (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973) (hereinafter referred to as FRUS, with appropriate year and volume numbers), p. 892.
2. In 1947 the U.S. military governor, General Lucius D. Clay, asked architect Walter Gropius to draw up a plan for establishing a capital city in Frankfurt for a future West German state.
3. Jeffrey M. Diefendorf, "America and the Rebuilding of Urban Germany," in Jeffrey M. Diefendorf, Axel Frohn, and Hermann-Josef Rupieper, eds., American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945-1955 (Washington, DC: German Historical Institute and Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 337.
4. Memorandum for the President, 15 October 1948, in Harry S. Truman Papers, President's Secretary File (PSF), Subject File, National Security Council-Meetings File, "Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948," Harry S. Truman Library (HSTL), Independence, MO.
5. Diethelm Prowe, "Berlin: Catalyst and Fault Line of German-American Relations in the Cold War," in Detlef Junker, ed., The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1990, Vol. 1, 1945/1968 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 165-179.
6. Lawrence Freedman, "Berlin and the Cold War," in John P. S. Gearson and Kori Schake, eds., The Berlin Wall Crisis: Perspectives on Cold War Alliances (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), p. 2.
7. Stanley Hoffmann, "An American Social Science: International Relations Author(s)," Daedalus, Vol. 106, No. 3 (Summer 1977), pp. 47-48
8. Hans J. Morgenthau, "The Intellectual and Political Functions of a Theory of International Relations," in Horace V. Harrison, ed., The Role of Theory in International Relations (Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand, 1964), pp. 113-114.
9. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, 2nd ed. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1956)
10. George F. Kennan, Realities of American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954)
11. Arnold Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration: Essays on International Politics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1962)
12. Henry A. Kissinger, American Foreign Policy, 3rd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977).
13. Recently, the so-called neoclassical realists have tried to revive the earlier tradition of realist foreign policy theory.
14. Gideon Rose, "Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy," World Politics, Vol. 51, No. 1 (October 1998), pp. 144-177
15. Steven E. Lobell, Norrin M. Ripsman, and Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).
16. For the distinction between theories of foreign policy and international politics
17. Neorealist Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1979), pp. 65, 72-73, 122-123.
18. Hans J. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest: A Critical Examination of American Foreign Policy (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951), pp. 117-120
19. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, pp. 90, 114.
20. On the political and military weaknesses of the West's position in Berlin and the lack of practical military options for the United States
21. Kori Schake, "The Berlin Crises of 1948-49 and 1958-62," in Beatrice Heuser and Robert O'Neill, eds., Securing Peace in Europe, 1945-62: Thoughts for the Post-Cold War Era (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992), pp. 66-69.
22. W. Phillips Davison, The Berlin Blockade: A Study in Cold War Politics (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1957), pp. 149-150.
23. For accounts of the perceptions and calculations of U.S. officials
24. Avi Shlaim, The United States and the Berlin Blockade, 1945-1949 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983)
25. Daniel F. Harrington, "The Berlin Blockade Revisited," The International History Review, Vol. 6, No. 1 (February 1984), pp. 88-112.
26. For key statements of psychological theory on intuitive judgment
27. Daniel Kahneman, "A Perspective on Judgment and Choice: Mapping Bounded Rationality," American Psychologist, Vol. 58, No. 9 (September 2003), pp. 697-720
28. Ap Dijksterhuis and Loran F. Nordgren, "A Theory of Unconscious Thought," Perspectives on Psychological Science, Vol. 1, No. 2 (2006), pp. 95-109.
29. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, pp. 25-26
30. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, pp. 90-99.
31. Robert G. Gilpin, "The Richness of the Tradition of Political Realism," International Organization, Vol. 38, No. 2 (Spring 1984), pp. 290-291.
32. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations, p. 5.
33. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations., p. 117
34. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest, p. 117.
35. Morgenthau, In Defense of the National Interest., pp. 7-8.
36. Wolfers, Discord and Collaboration, p. 221.
37. Michael D. Haydock, City under Siege: The Berlin Blockade and Airlift, 1948-1949 (Washington, DC: Brassey's, 1999), pp. 149, 183.
38. Roger G. Miller, To Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948-1949 (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2000), p. 34.
39. Steven L. Rearden, History of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, Vol. 1, The Formative Years, 1947-1950 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), p. 298
40. Policy Planning Staff Meeting, 28 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 1195.
41. Gary Klein, Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998).
42. Tilmann Betsch, "The Nature of Intuition and Its Neglect in Research on Judgment and Decision Making," in Henning Plessner, Cornelia Betsch, and Tillmann Betsch, eds., Intuition in Judgment and Decision Making (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2008), p. 4.
43. Dijksterhuis and Nordgren, "A Theory of Unconscious Thought," pp. 97, 105, 107.
44. Ap Dijksterhuis et al., "On Making the Right Choice: The Deliberation-without-Attention Effect," Science, Vol. 311 (27 February 2006), pp. 1005-1007.
45. Timothy D. Wilson, Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002).
46. Timothy D. Wilson, Strangers to Ourselves: Discovering the Adaptive Unconscious (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002)., pp. 171-172
47. Ap Dijksterhuis, "Think Different: The Merits of Unconscious Thought in Preference Development and Decision Making," Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 87, No. 3 (Summer 2004), pp. 586-598.
48. Philip E. Tetlock Jr., Expert Political Judgment: How Good Is It? How Can We Know? (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005), pp. 21, 88.
49. Lucius D. Clay, Decision in Germany (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1950), p. 365.
50. "Editorial Note," in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 909-910;Murphy toMarshall, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, 912-914
51. Clay, Decision in Germany, pp. 363-365.
52. Alan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945-1951 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1983), pp. 377-378, 383-384
53. Carolyn Eisenberg, Drawing the Line: The American Decision to Divide Germany, 1944-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 292-293, 296, 298, 300-302
54. Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945-1963 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), pp. 57-58;
55. Truman to Marshall, April 1, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, p. 302.
56. John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1976), pp. 15-16, 194, 254.
57. Bullock, Ernest Bevin, p. 491-492
58. "Memorandum of Conversation between Marshall and Bidault," 8 October 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, pp. 683-684.
59. U.S. Delegation to Truman, memoranda of 5, 8, 12, and 15 December 1947, in FRUS: 1947, Vol. 2, pp. 749, 757, 767, 771
60. "British Memorandum of Conversation, Marshall-Bevin Meeting," 18 December 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, pp. 823, 825-826
61. "Memorandum of Conversation by Murphy," 18 December 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, p. 828.
62. Admiral Roscoe H. Hillenkoetter, Memorandum for the President, 22 December 1947, in PSF, Intelligence File, HSTL.
63. Memorandum from Lightner to Reber and Saltzman, 26 December 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, pp. 905-907.
64. Smith to Marshall, December 30, 1947, in FRUS, 1947, Vol. 2, p. 908.
65. Kenneth C. Royall, Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, 19 January 1948, with revised staff study attached, "U.S. Course of Action in the Event the Soviets Attempt to Force Us Out of Berlin," in Record Group (RG) 330 (Sec. of Defense), CD 6-2-9, National Archives (NARA), College Park, MD.
66. Kenneth W. Condit, The History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff: The Joint Chiefs of Staff and National Policy, Vol. 2, 1947-1949 (Washington, DC: Historical Division, Joint Secretariat, U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1976), pp. 129-130
67. Kenneth C. Royall, Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, 19 January 1948.
68. Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 5-69, 610-615
69. Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War, updated and rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1990), pp. 196-200, 213-214.
70. Rearden, The Formative Years, p. 120
71. Anna Kasten Nelson, "President Truman and the Evolution of the National Security Council," Journal of American History, Vol. 72, No. 2 (September 1985), pp. 367-368
72. Richard F. Haynes, The Awesome Power: Harry S. Truman as Commander in Chief (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), p. 309.
73. See the documents transcribed in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 75-143.
74. Mikhail M. Narinskii, "The Soviet Union and the Berlin Crisis, 1948-9," in Francesca Gori and Silvio Pons, eds., The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1945-1953 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996), pp. 62-64.
75. Narinskii, "The Soviet Union and the Berlin Crisis," pp. 64-65
76. Gerhard Wettig, Stalin and the Cold War in Europe: The Emergence and Development of East-West Conflict, 1939-1953 (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2008), pp. 166-167.
77. Murphy to Marshall, 20 March 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 884.
78. Clay to Bradley, 31March 1948, in Clark Clifford Papers, Subject File 1945-54, "Russia [5 of 8]," HSTL.
79. William R. Harris, "March Crisis 1948, Act II," Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 11 (Spring 1967), pp. 27-29, 31
80. Walter Millis, ed., The Forrestal Diaries (New York: Viking Press, 1951), p. 408.
81. Clay to Bradley, 1 April 1948, in Jean Edward Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Germany, 1945-1949, 2 vols. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974), Vol. 2, p. 607; and Bradley to Clay, 1 April 1948, in Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 608.
82. Teleconference, General Bradley and General Clay, 10 April 1948, in Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 622.
83. Teleconference, General Bradley and General Clay, 10 April 1948, in Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 622-623.
84. Shlaim, The United States and the Berlin Blockade, p. 135.
85. Narinskii, "The Soviet Union and the Berlin Crisis," pp. 64-65.
86. Lovett to Douglas, 22 April 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 896.
87. Douglas to Marshall, 28 April 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 899-900.
88. Douglas to Lovett, 17 April 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 895.
89. John W. Young, France, the Cold War and the Western Alliance, 1944-49: French Foreign Policy and Post-war Europe (Leicester, UK: Leicester University Press, 1990), pp. 192-194, 198
90. Douglas to Marshall, 21 May 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 266-267.
91. Marshall to Caffery, 26 May 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 284.
92. "Memorandum of Conversation, Lovett with French Ambassador," 21May 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 271.
93. Young, France, the ColdWar and theWestern Alliance, pp. 194-195
94. Communiqué of the London Conference on Germany, Released to the Press on 7 June 1948, in FRUS: 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 313-17.
95. Caffery to Marshall, 17 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 335-337.
96. John H. Ohly, Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense, 24 June 1948, in Situation in Berlin, RG 330 (Sec of Defense), CD 6-2-9, NARA.
97. "Teleconference between Royall and Collins with Clay," 25 June 1948, in Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, pp. 699, 702-703.
98. Cabinet Meeting, 25 June 1948, in Matthew J. Connelly Papers, HSTL.
99. "Memorandum by the Chief of the Division of Central European Affairs Beam," 28 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 928-929.
100. Memorandum to Determine U.S. Position Regarding the Continued Occupation of Berlin, June 1948, in RG 319, P&O Hot Files, P&O 381 TS, NARA.
101. Bullock, Ernest Bevin, p. 576
102. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay: An American Life (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), pp. 497-498.
103. Murphy to Marshall, 26 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 918-919
104. Miller, To Save a City, p. 44.
105. Douglas to Marshall, 26 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 923-925.
106. "Churchill Likens Berlin to Munich; Vows Aid to Bevin," The New York Times, 27 June 1948.
107. Clay to Draper, 2 June 1948, in Smith, ed., The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 708.
108. Miller, To Save a City, pp. 41, 55.
109. Young, France, the Cold War, and the Western Alliance, pp. 198-199; and Caffery to Marshall, 24 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 916-917.
110. Memorandum for the Files, The Situation in Berlin-Conference of 27 June 1948
111. John H. Ohly Papers, Department of Defense File, Subject File, 1947-1949, "Miscellaneous Defense Materials 1947-1949," HSTL. For a summary of the meeting, see Millis, ed., Forrestal Diaries, pp. 452-454.
112. Entry for 28 June 1948, in Diaries of James V. Forrestal, 1944-1949: Complete and Unexpurgated Diaries from the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University, 15 vols. (London: Adam Matthew Publications, n.d.), Microfilm, Reel 4, p. 2340.
113. Royall to Bradley, 28 June 1948, in Diaries of James V. Forrestal, Reel 4, p. 2328.
114. "The Berlin Situation (Notes Used for Briefing by Gen. Maddocks)," 27 June 1948, in RG 319, P&O Hot Files, 381 TS, NARA.
115. William M. Franklin, "Zonal Boundaries and Access to Berlin," World Politics, Vol. 16, No. 1 (October 1963), pp. 21-23, 26-27.
116. Franklin, "Zonal Boundaries and Access to Berlin," pp. 28-29
117. P. H. Johnston, "Origins of the U.S. Commitment to the West Berlin Enclave," Third Draft, Enclosure A, C. I. No. 6, 27 May 1966, in U.S. Department of Defense, Freedom of Information Act Reading Room, http://www.dod.mil/pubs/foi/reading_room/510.pdf. The exchange of messages between Truman and Stalin appears in FRUS, 1945, Vol. 3, pp. 135-137.
118. Blum to Forrestal, Extracts from Truman-Stalin Messages, 1 July 1945, in Diaries of James V. Forrestal, Reel 4, 2338 n. 54a.
119. Blum to Forrestal, Zonal Divisions in Germany, 29 June 1945, with Attachment, "Resume: The Zoning of Germany," in Diaries of James V. Forrestal, Reel 4, p. 2331
120. Franklin, "Zonal Boundaries and Access to Berlin," p. 24.
121. Clay, Decision in Germany, pp. 25-27
122. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, pp. 30-32.
123. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, p. 48.
124. Marshall to Douglas, 28 June 1948, in FRUS: 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 930-931.
125. Rearden, The Formative Years, p. 292.
126. Marshall to Douglas, 9 July 1948, in FRUS: 1948, Vol. 2, p. 956.
127. "Editorial Note," in FRUS: 1948, Vol. II, pp. 380-381; Murphy to Marshall, 9 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, p. 384; and Murphy toMarshall, 14 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 393-396.
128. David E. Murphy, Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey, Battleground Berlin: CIA vs. KGB in the Cold War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 57-62
129. CIA, "Memorandum for the President," 28 June 1948, in Dennis Merrill, ed., Documentary History of the Truman Presidency (Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 1995), p. 23.
130. Hillenkoetter to Truman, 30 June 1948, in Merrill, ed. Documentary History of the Truman Presidency, p. 29.
131. Royall to Clay, 28 June 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 929.
132. Murphy to the Embassy in France, 4 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 948-950
133. Clay, Decision in Germany, p. 367.
134. Secretary of State to Soviet Ambassador Panyushkin, 6 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 950-953.
135. Soviet Ambassador Panyushkin to Marshall, 14 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 960-964.
136. CIA, "Review of the World Situation," 14 July 1948, in PSF, National Security Files, Meetings, "Meeting 15, July 15, 1948," HSTL.
137. Scholars who suggest that Stalin under some circumstances might have been satisfied with a unified, demilitarized Germany that was not hostile toward the Soviet Union include.
138. Norman M. Naimark, The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945-1949 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), pp. 258, 351-352
139. Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin's ColdWar: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 47-48
140. Wilfried Loth, Stalin's Unwanted Child: The Soviet Union, the German Question and the Founding of the GDR, trans. by Robert F. Hogg (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998), pp. 7-9
141. W. R. Smyser, From Yalta to Berlin: The Cold War Struggle over Germany (London: Macmillan Press, 1999), pp. 32, 68
142. Mark Kramer, "The Soviet Union and the Founding of the German Democratic Republic: 50 Years Later-A Review Article," Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 51, No. 6 (1999), p. 1095
143. Geoffrey Roberts, Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939-1953 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), pp. 350-352
144. Melvyn P. Leffler, For the Soul of Mankind: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Cold War (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), pp. 54-55.
145. For the view that Stalin aimed at Communist control of a unified Germany from the very start and never wavered on the matter
146. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking ColdWar History (Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1997), p. 116
147. Vladislav M. Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), pp. 62-66, 70-71, 77-78, 82-83
148. Wettig, Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, pp. 32-35, 159-160.
149. Ronald W. Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (New York: The Free Press, 1982), pp. 375-376.
150. Entry for 19 July 1948, in Diaries of James V. Forrestal, Reel 4, p. 2369.
151. Truman diary, 19 July 1948
152. Robert Ferrell, ed., Off the Record: The Private Papers of Harry S. Truman (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 145.
153. Memorandum of Conversation with Averell Harriman, 17 July 1948, in RG 335 Under Secretary of the Army (Draper/Voorhees) Germany 000.1, "Berlin Crises, Book 1," NARA; and William H. Draper, Memorandum for Record, 19 July 1948, in RG 335, Under Secretary of the Army (Draper/Voorhees), SAOUS 000.1 Germany, NARA.
154. Truman diary, 19 July 1948, in Ferrell, ed., Off the Record, p. 145.
155. Secretary of State Marshall to Douglas, 20 July 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 971.
156. Alfred D. Sander, "Truman and the National Security Council: 1945-1947," The Journal of American History, Vol. 59, No. 2 (September 1972), pp. 369-388
157. Nelson, "President Truman and the Evolution of the National Security Council," pp. 365-366, 377.
158. Memorandum for the President, 16 July 1948, in PSF, Subject File, 1940-1953, National Security Council Meetings File, "Memorandum for the President, Meeting Discussions 1948," HSTL. No firm estimates of West Berlin's tonnage requirements were available at the beginning of the crisis, and the numbers varied with the speaker.
159. Memorandum from the Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, to the Joint Chiefs of Staff on U.S. Military Courses of Action with Respect to Berlin, 17 July 1948, in RG 218, Records of the JCS 381 (8-20-43), Sec. 17, NARA.
160. Memorandum for the President, 23 July 1948, in PSF, National Security Files, Meetings, Memoranda for the President, Meeting Discussions (1948), HSTL.
161. Victor Gobarev, "Soviet Military Plans and Actions during the First Berlin Crisis, 1948-1949," Journal of Slavic Military Studies, Vol. 10, No. 3 (1997), p. 16.
162. Memorandum for the President, 23 July 1948, in PSF, National Security Files, Meetings, Memoranda for the President, Meeting Discussions (1948), HSTL.
163. Minutes of the 16th Meeting of the National Security Council, 22 July 1948, in PSF, National Security Council Files, Meetings, Meeting 16: July 22, 1948, HSTL.
164. Secretary of Defense, "U.S. Military Courses of Action with Respect to the Situation in Berlin," Memorandum for the National Security Council, 22 July 1948, in RG 218, Records of the JCS 381 (8-20-43), Sec. 17, NARA.
165. Condit, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, p. 144.
166. Kennan to Lovett, 2 August 1948, in Records of the Policy Planning Staff, Germany 1947-48, RG 59, NARA.
167. Miller, To Save a City, p. 90
168. William H. Tunner, Over the Hump (New York: Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1964), pp. 159-161
169. Lt. Col. Lemley, "Movement of Aircraft to Europe," Memo for Record, 29 June 1948, in RG 319, Plans and Operations Division, Decimal File, 381 TS 1946-48, Sec. V-A (Part II), NARA.
170. Tunner, Over the Hump, pp. 168, 174
171. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, pp. 181-182, 247-248.
172. Tunner, Over the Hump, pp. 211-212
173. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, p. 257.
174. Marshall to Douglas, 21 July 1948, in FRUS: 1948, Vol. II, p. 975; and Bullock, Ernest Bevin, pp. 584, 588.
175. Forrestal diary, 3 August 1948, in Millis, ed., Forrestal Diaries, p. 469; and Smith to Marshall, 3 August 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 999-1006.
176. Smith to Marshall, 6 August 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 1018-1019.
177. Smith to Marshall, 27 August 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, pp. 1085-1087.
178. "Teleconference," 24 August 1948, in Smith, ed., Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, pp. 781-784
179. Murphy to Marshall, 1 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 1101-1103; "Memorandum by Bohlen," 2 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 1108-1109; and Clay to Draper, 4 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 1109-1112.
180. Memorandum for the President, 9 September 1948, Truman Papers, in PSF, Subject File, 1940-1953, National Security Council Meetings File, "Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948," HSTL.
181. Marshall to Murphy, 11 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. II, pp. 1147-49; and Smith to Marshall, 14 September 1948, in FRUS, 1948, Vol. 2, p. 1157.
182. Shlaim, The United States and the Berlin Blockade, pp. 366-367.
183. Murphy et al., Battleground Berlin, p. 67
184. Narinskii, "The Soviet Union and the Berlin Crisis," pp. 71-72.
185. Clay to Bradley and LeMay, 10 September 1948, in Smith, ed., Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 852; Clay to Bradley, 23 September 1948, in Smith, ed., Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, pp. 878-879; Clay to Bradley, 4 October 1948, in Smith, ed., Papers of General Lucius D. Clay, Vol. 2, p. 890; and "Conversation between Bevin and Marshall," 22 September 1948, in Paul Preston and Michael Partridge, eds., British Documents on Foreign Affairs: Reports and Papers from the Foreign Office Confidential Print. Part IV, From 1946 through 1950, Series F, Europe 1948, Vol. 13 (Germany and Austria: 1948) (Bethesda, MD: University Publications of America, 2002), pp. 181-182.
186. Condit, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, pp. 151-153. According to Condit, the Joint Chiefs' original 13 October memoranda were recalled and destroyed. Condit makes inferences about their content from the earlier JCS 1907/9 and JCS 1907/11, which are available.
187. "Summary of the Military Situation in Germany," JCS 1907/1, 19 July 1948, with Attachments, in RG 218, 381 (8-20-43), Sec. 17, NARA.
188. Memorandum for the President, 15 October 1948, in PSF, Subject File, National Security Council- Meetings File, Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948, HSTL.
189. Memorandum for the President, 22 October 1948, in PSF, Subject File, National Security Council-Meetings File, Memoranda for the President: Meeting Discussions: 1948, HSTL.
190. Condit, History of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, p. 155.
191. Frank Howley, Berlin Command (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1950), pp. 230-231
192. Tunner, Over the Hump, p. 172, 209
193. Miller, To Save a City, pp. 120-121, 168, 170.
194. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, pp. 306-307
195. Miller, To Save a City, 169, 172.
196. Charles E. Bohlen, Witness to History: 1929-1969 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1973), p. 283.
197. Paul Steege, Black Market, Cold War: Everyday Life in Berlin, 1946-1949 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 247, 249-250, 253.
198. Bohlen, Witness to History, p. 284
199. Shlaim, The United States and the Berlin Blockade, pp. 380-382, 387.
200. Bullock, Ernest Bevin, pp. 669, 692.
201. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift, pp. 374, 377.
202. Tusa and Tusa, Berlin Airlift., pp. 307, 377.
203. Howley, Berlin Command, p. 237.
204. Ernest R. May, "America's Berlin: Heart of the Cold War," Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 4 (July/August 1998), p. 157.
205. "Memorandum of Conversation between President Eisenhower and Secretary of State Dulles," 18 November 1958, in FRUS: Berlin Crisis, 1958-1959, Vol. 8, p. 85.
206. Michael R. Beschloss, The Crisis Years: Kennedy and Khrushchev 1960-1963 (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), p. 225.