Photodynamic inactivation of mammalian viruses and bacteriophages

Viruses

Volumn 4, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 1034-1074

  Costa, Liliana ^a   Faustino, Maria Amparo F ^a   Neves, Maria Graça P M S ^a   Cunha, Ângela ^a   Almeida, Adelaide ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AVEIRO   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Bacteriophages; Mammalian viruses; Photodynamic therapy; Photosensitizer; Viral photoinactivation process

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; DOUBLE STRANDED DNA; DOUBLE STRANDED RNA; FREE RADICAL; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; HYDROXYL RADICAL; PHOTOSENSITIZING AGENT; PORPHYRIN DERIVATIVE; SCAVENGER; SINGLET OXYGEN; VIRUS DNA; VIRUS PROTEIN; VIRUS RNA;

ANTIVIRAL RESISTANCE; BACTERIOPHAGE; BACTERIOPHAGE INACTIVATION; BURN INFECTION; CHEMICAL INTERACTION; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CONCENTRATION RESPONSE; DISINFECTION; DNA DAMAGE; DNA VIRUS; HUMAN; LIGHT EXPOSURE; LIGHT INTENSITY; MAMMAL; MAMMALIAN VIRUS; MICROBIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND FUNCTIONS; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHOTODYNAMIC INACTIVATION; PHOTODYNAMICS; PHOTOOXIDATION; PHOTOSENSITIVITY; PROTEIN DNA INTERACTION; REVIEW; RNA VIRUS; SANITATION; VIRUS ENVELOPE; VIRUS GENOME; VIRUS INACTIVATION; VIRUS INFECTION; VIRUS INHIBITION; VIRUS RESISTANCE; VIRUS STRAIN; WOUND INFECTION;

ANIMALS; BACTERIOPHAGES; HUMANS; PHOTOCHEMOTHERAPY; PHOTOSENSITIZING AGENTS; VIRUS DISEASES; VIRUS INACTIVATION; VIRUSES;

MAMMALIA;

EID: 84864340474     PISSN: 19994915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v4071034     Document Type: Review

References (165)

1. Jori, G.; Brown, S.B. Photosensitized inactivation of microorganisms. Photochem. Photobio. Sci. 2004, 3, 403-405.
2. van Der Poel, W.H.; Vinjé, J.; van Der Heide, R.; Herrera, M.I.; Vivo, A.; Koopmans, M.P. Norwalk-like calicivirus genes in farm animals. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2000, 6, 36-41.
3. Blerkom, L.V.L. Role of viruses in human evolution. Yearbk. Phys. Anthropol. 2009, 46, 14-46.
4. Pulitzer, M.P.; Amin, B.D.; Busam, K.J. Merkel cell carcinoma: Review. Adv. Anat. Pathol. 2009, 16, 135-44.
5. Sullivan, V.; Biron, K.K.; Talarico, C.; Stanat, S.C.; Davis, M.; Pozzi, L.M.; Coen, D.M. A point mutation in the human cytomegalovirus DNA polymerase gene confers resistance to ganciclovir and phosphonylmethoxyalkyl derivatives. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 1993, 37, 19-25.
6. Smee, D.F.; Barnett, B.B.; Sidwell, R.W.; Reist, E.J.; Holy, A. Antiviral activities of nucleosides and nucleotides against wild-type and drug-resistant strains of murine cytomegalovirus. Antivir. Res. 1995, 26, 1-9.
7. Kimberlin, D.W.; Whitley, R.J. Antiviral resistance: Mechanisms, clinical significance, and future implications. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1996, 37, 403-421.
8. Jabs, D.A.; Enger, C.; Forman, M.; Dunn, J.P. for The cytomegalovirus retinitis and viral resistance study group. Incidence of foscarnet resistance and cidofovir resistance in patients treated for cytomegalovirus retinitis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1998, 42, 2240-2244.
9. Pillay, D.; Zambon, M. Antiviral drug resistance. Br. Med. J. 1998, 317, 660-662.
10. Smee, D.F.; Sidwell, R.W.; Kefauver, D.; Bray, M.; Huggins, J.W. Characterization of wild-type and cidofovir-resistant strains of camelpox, cowpox, monkeypox, and vaccinia viruses. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2002, 46, 1329-1335
11. Schultz, E.W.; Krueger, A.P. Inactivation of Staphylococcus bacteriophage by methylene blue. P. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1928, 26, 100-101.
12. Perdrau, J.R.; Todd, C. The photodynamic action of methylene blue on certain viruses. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 1933, 112, 288-298.
13. Käsermann, F.; Kempf, C. Buckminsterfullerene and photodynamic inactivation of viruses. Rev. Med. Virol. 1998, 8, 143-151.
14. Hamblin, M.R.; Hasan, T. Photodynamic therapy: A new antimicrobial approach to infectious disease? Photoch. Photobio. Sci. 2004, 5, 436-450.
15. Felber, T.D.; Smith, E.B.; Knox, J.M.; Wallis, C.; Melnick, J.L. Photodynamic inactivation of herpes simplex: Report of a clinical trial. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1973, 92, 223-289.
16. Almeida, A.; Cunha, A.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Tomé, A.C.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S. Porphyrins as antimicrobial photosensitizing agents. In Photodynamic Inactivation of Microbial Pathogens: Medical and Environmental Applications; Royal Society of Chemistry: Cambridge, UK, 2011; pp. 83-160.
17. Mullooly, V.M.; Abramson, A.L.; Shikowitz, M.J. Dihemato-porphyrin ether-induced photosensitivity in laryngeal papilloma patients. Laser. Surg. Med. 1990, 10, 349-356.
18. Karrer, S.; Szeimies, R.M.; Abels, C.; Wlotzke, U.; Stolz, W.; Landthaler, M. Epidermodysplasia verruciformis treated using topical 5-aminolaevulinic acid photodynamic therapy. Br. J. Dermatol. 1999, 140, 935-938.
19. Lavie, G.; Mazur, Y.; Lavie, D.; Meruelo, D. The chemical and biological properties of hypericin-A compound with a broad spectrum of biological activities. Med. Res. Rev. 1995, 15, 111-119.
20. Smetana, Z.; Malik, Z.; Orenstein, A.; Mendelson, E.; Ben-Hur, E. Treatment of viral infections with 5-aminolevulinic acid and light. Laser. Surg. Med. 1997, 21, 351-358.
21. Sloand, E.M.; Pitt, E.; Klein, H.G. Safety of the blood supply. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1995, 274, 1368-1373.
22. Mannucci, P.M. Outbreak of hepatitis A among Italian patients with haemophilia. Lancet 1992, 339, 819.
23. Klein, H.G. Oxygen carriers and transfusion medicine. Artif. Cell. Blood Substit. Biotechnol1994, 22, 123-135.
24. Azzi, A.; Fanci, R.; Ciappi, S.; Zakrzewska, K.; Bosi, A. Human parvovirus B19 infection in bone marrow transplantation patients. Am. J. Hematol. 1993, 44, 207-209.
25. Asanaka, M.; Kurimura, T.; Toya, H.; Ogaki, J.; Kato Y. Anti-HIV activity of protoporphyrin. AIDS 1989, 3, 403-404.
26. Dixon, D.W.; Marzilli, L.G.; Schinazi R.F. Porphyrins as agents against the human immunodeficiency virus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1990, 616, 511-513.
27. Lambrecht, B.; Mohr, H.; Knuver-Hopf, J.; Schmitt, H. Photoinactivation of viruses in human fresh plasma by phenothiazine dyes in combination with visible light. Vox Sang. 1991, 60, 207-213.
28. Levere, R.D.; Gong, Y.F.; Kappas, A.; Bucher, D.J.; Wormser, G.; Abraham, N.G. Heme inhibits human immunodeficiency virus 1 replication in cell cultures and enhances the antiviral effect of zidovudine. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1991, 88, 1756-1759.
29. Matthews, J.L.; Sogandares-Bernal, F.; Judy, M.; Gulliya, K.; Newman, J.; Chanh, T.; Marengo-Rowe, A.J. Inactivation of viruses with photoactive compounds. Blood Cell. 1992, 18, 75-88.
30. Lenard, J.; Rabson, A.; Vanderoef, R. Photodynamic inactivation of infectivity of humam immunodeficiency virus and other enveloped viruses using hypericin and rose bengal: Inhibition of fusion and syncytia formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1993, 90, 158-162.
31. Neurath, A.R.; Strick, N.; Jiang, S. Rapid prescreening for antiviral agents against HIV-1 based on their inhibitory activity in site-directed immunoassays-Approaches applicable to epidemic HIV-1 strains. Antivir. Chem. Chemother. 1993, 4, 207-214.
32. Debnath, A.K.; Jiang, S.; Strick, N.; Lin, K.; Haberfield, P.; Neurath, A.R. 3-Dimensional structure-activity analysis of a series of porphyrin derivatives withanti-HIV-1 activity targeted to the v3 loop of the gp120 envelope glycoprotein of the human-immunodeficiency-virus type 1. J. Med. Chem. 1994, 37, 1099-1108.
33. North, J.; Coombs, R.; Levy, J. Photodynamic inactivation of free and cell-associated HIV-1 using the photosensitizer, benzoporphyrin derivative. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 1994, 7, 891-898.
34. Bachmann, B. K-H.J.B.; Lambrecht, B.; Mohr, H. Target structures for HIV-1 inactivation by methylene blue and light. J. Med. Virol. 1995, 47, 172-178.
35. Song, R.; Witvrouw, M.; Schols, D.; Robert, A.; Balzarini, J.; De Clercq, E.; Bernadou, J.; Meunier, B. 1997. Anti-HIV activities of anionic metalloporphyrins and related compounds. Antivir. Chem. Chemother. 1997, 8, 85-97.
36. Vzorov, A.N.; Dixon, D.W.; Trommel, J.S.; Marzilli, L.G.; Compans, R.W. Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by porphyrins. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2002, 46, 3917-3925.
37. Vanyur, R.; Heberger, K.; Jakus, J. Prediction of anti-HIV-1 activity of a series of tetrapyrrole molecules. J. Chem. Inform. Comput. Sci. 2003, 43, 1829-1836.
38. Dairou, J.; Vever-Bizet, C.; D. Brault, D. Interaction of sulfonated anionic porphyrins with HIV glycoprotein gp120: photodamages revealed by inhibition of antibody binding to V3 and C5 domains. Antivir. Res. 2004, 61, 37-47.
39. Marchesan, S.; Da Ros, T.; Spalluto, G.; Balzarini, J.; Prato, M. Anti-HIV properties of cationic fullerene derivatives. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2005, 15, 3615-3618.
40. North, J.; Freeman, S.; Overbaugh, J.; Levy, J.; Lansman, R. Photodynamic inactivation of retrovirus by benzoporphyrin derivative: A feline leukemia virus model. Transfusion 1992, 32, 121-128.
41. Müller-Breitkreutz, K.; Mohr, H. Hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus RNA degradation by methylene blue/light treatment of human plasma. J. Med. Virol. 1998, 56, 239-245.
42. Cheng, Y.; Tsou, L.K.; Cai, J.; Aya, T.; Dutschman, G.E.; Gullen, E.A.; Grill, S.P.; Chen, A. P-C.; Lindenbach, B.D.; Hamilton, A.D.; Cheng, Y-C. A novel class of meso-tetrakis-porphyrin derivatives exhibits potent activities against hepatitis C virus genotype 1b replicons in vitro. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2010, 54, 197-206.
43. Lin L.; Hu, J. Inhibition of hepadnavirus reverse transcriptase RNA interaction by porphyrin compounds. J. Virol. 2008, 82, 2305-2312.
44. Casteel, B.M.J.; Jayaraj, K.; Avram, G.; Bail, L.M.; Sobsey, M.D. Photoinactivation of hepatitis A virus by synthetic porphyrins. Photochem. Photobiol. 2004, 80, 294-300.
45. O'Brien, J.M.; Gaffney, D.K.; Wang, T.P.; Sieber, F. Merocyanine 540 sensitized photoinactivation of enveloped viruses in blood products: Site and mechanism of phototoxicity. Blood 1992, 80, 277-285.
46. Mohr, H.; Bachmann, B.; Klein-Struckmeier, A.; Lambrecht, B. Virus inactivation of blood products by phenothiazine dyes and light. Photochem. Photobiol. 1997, 65, 441-445.
47. Sieber, F.; O'Brien, J.M.; Krueger, G.J.; Schober, S.L.; Burns, W.H.; Sharkis, S.J.; Sensenbrenner, L.L. Antiviral activity of merocyanine 540. Photochem. Photobiol. 1987, 46, 707-711.
48. Leclerc, H.; Edberg, S.; Pierzo, V.; Delattre, J.M. Bacteriophages as indicators of enteric viruses and public health risk in groundwaters. A review. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2000, 88, 5-21.
49. Rywkin, S.; Ben-Hur, E.; Malik, Z.; Prince, A.M.; Li, Y.S.; Kenney, M.E.; Oleinick, N.L.; Horowitz, B. New phthalocynanines for photodynamic virus inactivation in red blood cell concentrates. Photochem. Photobiol. 1994, 60, 165-170.
50. Käsermann, F.; Kempf, C. Photodynamic inactivation of enveloped viruses by buckminsterfullerene. Antivir. Res. 1997, 34, 65-70.
51. DiMascio, P.; Wefers, H.; Do-Thi, H-P.; Lafleur, M.V.M.; Sies, H. Singlet molecular oxygen causes loss of biological activity in plasmid and bacteriophage DNA and induces single strand breaks. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1989, 1007, 151-157.
52. Abe, H.; Ikebuchi, K.; Wagner, S.J.; Kuwabara, M.; Kamo, N.; Sekiguchi, S. Potential involvement of both type I and type II mechanisms in M13 virus inactivation by methylene blue photosensitization. Photochem. Photobiol. 1997, 66, 204-208.
53. Specht, K.G. The role of DNA damage in PM2 viral inactivation by methylene blue photosensitization. Photochem. Photobiol. 1994, 59, 506-514.
54. Schneider, J.E.; Philips, J.R.; Pye, Q.; Maidt, M.L.; Price, S.; Floyd, R.A. Methylene blue and rose bengal photoinactivation of RNA bacteriophages: Comparative studies of 8-oxoguanine formation in isolated RNA. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1993, 301, 91-97.
55. Jockush, S.; Lee, D.; Turro, N.J.; Leonard, E.F. Photoinduced inactivation of viruses: Adsorption of methylene blue, thionine and thiopyronine on Qβ bacteriophage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1996, 93, 7446-7451.
56. Lee, D.; Foux, M.; Leonard, E.F. The effects of methylene blue and oxygen concentration on the photoinactivation of Qβ bacteriophage. Photochem. Photobiol. 1997, 65, 161-165.
57. Hotze, E.M.; Badireddy, A.R.; Chellam, S.; Wiesner, M.R. Mechanisms of bacteriophage inactivation via singlet oxygen generation in UV illuminated fullerol suspensions. Environ. Sci. Tech. 2009, 43, 6639-6645.
58. Kasturi, C.; Platz, M.S. Inactivation of lambda phage with 658 nm light using a DNA binding porphyrin sensitizer. Photochem. Photobiol. 1992, 56, 427-429.
59. Martin, C.B.; Wilfong, E.; Ruane, P.; Goodrich, R.; Platz, M. An action spectrum of the riboflavin-photosensitized inactivation of lambda phage. Photochem. Photobiol. 2005, 81, 474-480.
60. Wagner, S.J.; Skripchenkol, A.; Robinenel, D.; Foley, J.W.; Cincotta, L. Factors affecting virus photoinactivation by a series of phenothiazine dyes. Photochem. Photobiol. 1998, 67, 343-349.
61. Brendel, M. Different photodynamic action of proflavine and methylene blue on bacteriophage. I. Host cell reactivation of Serratiaphage kappa. Mol. Gen. Genet. 1970, 108, 303-311.
62. Yamamoto, N. Photodynamic inactivation of bacteriophage and its inhibition. J. Bacteriol. 1957, 6, 510-521.
63. Witmer, H.; Fraser, D. Photodynamic action of proflavine on coliphage T3 II. Protection by L-cysteine. J. Virol. 1971, 7, 319-322.
64. Gábor, F.; Szolnoki, J.; Tóth, K.; Fekete, A.; Maillard, P.; Csík, G. Photoinduced inactivation of T7 phage sensitized by symmetrically and asymmetrically substituted tetraphenyl porphyrin: comparison of efficiency and mechanism of action. Photochem. Photobiol. 2001, 73, 304-311.
65. Kadish, L.L.; Fisher, D.B.; Pardee, A.B. Photodynamic inactivation of free and vegetative bacteriophage T4. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1967, 138, 57-65.
66. Costa, L.; Alves, E.; Carvalho, C.M.B.; Tomé, J.P.C.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S.; Tomé, A.C.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; Cunha, A.; Almeida, A. Sewage bacteriophage photoinactivation by cationic porphyrins: a study of charge effect. Photochem. Photobio. Sci. 2008, 7, 415-422.
67. Costa, L.; Carvalho, C.M.B.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S.; Tomé, J.P.C.; Tomé, A.C.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; Cunha, Â.; Almeida, A. Sewage bacteriophage inactivation by cationic porphyrins: influence of light parameters. Photochem. Photobio. Sci. 2010, 9, 1126-1133.
68. Costa, L.; Tomé, J.P.C.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S.; Tomé, A.C.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Cunha, Â.; Gomes, N.C.M.; Almeida, A. Evaluation of resistance development and viability recovery by a non-enveloped virus after repeated cycles of aPDT. Antivir. Res. 2011, 91, 278-282.
69. DeRosa, M.C.; Crutchley, R.J. Photosensitized singlet oxygen and its applications. Coord. Chem. Rev. 2002, 233-234, 351-371.
70. Capella, M.A.M.; Capella, L.S. A light in multidrug resistance: Photodynamic treatment of multidrug-resistant tumors. J. Biomed. Sci. 2003, 10, 361-366.
71. Castano, A.P.; Demidova, T.N.; Hamblin, M.R. Mechanisms in photodynamic therapy: Part one-photosensitizers, photochemistry and cellular localization. Photodiagn. Photodyn. 2004, 1, 279-293.
72. Prates, R.A.; da Silva, E.G.; Yomada, A.M.; Jr.; Suzuki, L.C.; Paula, C.R.; Ribeiro, M.S. Light parameters influence cell viability in antifungal photodynamic therapy in a fluence and rate fluence dependent manner. Laser Phys. 2009, 19, 1038-1044.
73. Welsh, J.N.; Adams, M.H. Photodynamic inactivation of bacteriophage. J. Bacteriol. 1954, 1, 122-127.
74. Huang, Q.; Fu, W-L.; Chen, B.; Huang, J-F.; Zhang, X.; Xue, Q. Inactivation of dengue virus by methylene blue/narrow bandwidth light system. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2004, 77, 39-43.
75. Schnipper, L.E.; Lewin, A.A.; Swartz, M.; Crumpacker, C.S. Mechanisms of photodynamic inactivation of herpes simplex viruses; comparison between methylene blue, light plus electricity, and hematoporphyrin plus light. J. Clin. Investig. 1980, 65, 432-438.
76. Schagen, F.H.E.; Moor, A.C.E.; Cheong, S.C.; Cramer, S.J.; van Ormondt, H.; van der Eb, A.J.; Dubbelman T.M.A.R.; Hoeben, R.C. Photodynamic treatment of adenoviral vectors with visible light: An easy and convenient method for viral inactivation. Gene Ther. 1999, 6, 873-881.
77. Lim, D-S.; Ko, S-H.; Kim, S-J.; Park, Y-J.; Park, J-H.; Lee, W-Y. Photoinactivation of vesicular stomatitis virus by a photodynamic agent, chlorophyll derivatives from silkworm excreta. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2002, 67, 149-156.
78. Sagristá, M.L.; Postigo, F.; De Madariaga, M.A.; Pinto, R.M.; Caballero, S.; Bosch, A.; Vallés, M.A.; Mora, M. Photodynamic inactivation of viruses by immobilized chlorine-containing liposomes. J. Porphyrin Phthalocyanines. 2009, 13, 578-588.
79. Tomé, J.P.C.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S.; Tomé, A.C.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; Mendonça, A.F.; Pegado, I.N.; Duarte, R.; Valdeira, M.L. Synthesis of glycoporphyrin derivatives and their antiviral activity against herpes simplex virus types 1 and 2. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2005, 13, 3878-3888.
80. Silva, E.M.P.; Giuntini, F.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Tomé, J.P.C.; Neves, M.G.P.M.S.; Tomé, A.C.; Silva, A.M.S.; Santana-Marques, M.G.; Ferrer-Correia, A.J.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; et al. Synthesis of cationic β-vinyl substituted meso-tetraphenylporphyrins and their in vitro activity against herpes simplex virus type 1. Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. 2005, 15, 3333-3337.
81. Abe, H.; Wagner, S.J. Analysis of viral DNA, protein and envelope damage after methylene blue, phthalocyanine derivative or merocyanine 540 photosensitization. Photochem. Photobiol. 1995, 61, 402-409.
82. Moor, A.C.E.; Wagenaars-van Gompel, A.E.; Brand, A.; Dubbelman, T.M.A.R.; Van Steveninck, J. Primary targets for photoinactivation of vesicular stomatitis virus by AlPcS4 or Pc4 and red light. Photochem. Photobiol. 1997, 65, 465-470.
83. Smetana, Z., Ben-Hur, E.; Mendelson, E.; Salzberg, S.; Wagner, P.; Malik, Z. Herpes simplex virus proteins are damaged following photodynamic inactivation with phthalocyanines. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 1998, 44, 77-83.
84. Müller-Breitkreutz, K.; Mohr, H.; Briviba, K.; Sies, H. Inactivation of viruses by chemically and photochemically generated singlet molecular oxygen. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 1995, 30, 63-70.
85. Wong, T-W.; Huang, H-J.; Wang, Y-F.; Lee, Y-P.; Huang, C-C.; Yu, C-K. Methylene blue-mediated photodynamic inactivation as a novel disinfectant of enterovirus 71. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2010, 65, 2176-2182.
86. Turner, G.S.; Kaplan, C. Photoinactivation of vaccinia virus with rose bengal. J. Gen. Virol. 1968, 3, 433-443.
87. Egyeki, M.; Turóczy, G.; Majer, Zs.; Tóth, K.; Fekete, A.; Maillard, Ph.; Csík, G. Photosensitized inactivation of T7 phage as surrogate of non-enveloped DNA viruses: Efficiency and mechanism of action. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2003, 1624, 115-124.
88. Zupán, K.; Egyeki, M.; Tóth, K.; Fekete, A.; Herényi, L.; Módos, K.; Csík, G. Comparison of the efficiency and the specificity of DNA-bound and free cationic porphyrin in photodynamic virus inactivation. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2008, 90, 105-112.
89. Schneider, J.E.; Jr.; Tabatabale, T.; Maidt, L.; Smith, R.H.; Nguyen, X.; Pye, Q.; Floyd, R.A. Potential mechanisms of photodynamic inactivation of virus by methylene blue I. RNA-protein crosslinks and other oxidative lesions in Qβ bacteriophage. Photochem. Photobiol. 1998, 67, 350-357.
90. Badireddy, A.R.; Hotze, E.M.; Chellam, S.; Alvarez, P.J.J.; Wiesner, M.R. Inactivation of bacteriophages via photosensitization of fullerol nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Tech. 2007, 41, 6627-6632.
91. Marotti, J.; Aranha, A.C.C.; Eduardo, C.D.P.; Ribeiro, M.S. Photodynamic therapy can be effective as a treatment for herpes simplex labialis. Photomed. Laser Surg. 2009, 27, 357-363.
92. Floyd, R.A.; Schneider, J.E.; Dittmer, D.P. Methylene blue photoinactivation of RNA viruses. Antivir. Res. 2004, 61, 141-151.
93. Wallis, C.; Melnick, J.L. Photodynamic inactivation of animal viruses: A review. Photochem. Photobiol. 1965, 4, 159-170.
94. Lytle, C.D.; Budacz, A.P.; Keville, E.; Miller, S.A.; Prodouz, K.N. Differential inactivation of surrogate viruses with merocyanine 540. Photochem. Photobiol. 1991, 54, 489-493.
95. Via, L.D.; Magno, S.M. Photochemotherapy in the treatment of cancer. Curr. Med. Chem. 2001, 8, 1405-1418.
96. Schmidt-Erfurth, U.; Hasan, T. Mechanisms of action of photodynamic therapy with verteporfin for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Surv. Ophthalmol. 2000, 45, 195-214.
97. Wainwright, M. Photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT). J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 1998, 42, 13-28.
98. Bonnett, R. Chemical Aspects of Photodynamic Therapy; Gordon and Breach Science Publishers: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2000.
99. Girotti, A.W. Photosensitized oxidation of membrane lipids: Reaction pathways, cytotoxic effects, and cytoprotective mechanisms. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2001, 63, 103-113.
100. Calin, M.A.; Parasca, S.V. Light sources for photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. Laser Med. Sci. 2009, 24, 453-460.
101. Min, D.B.; Boff, J.M. Chemistry and reaction of singlet oxygen in foods. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2002, 1, 58-72.
102. Maisch, T.; Bosl, C.; Szeimies, R.M.; Lehn, N.; Abels, C. Photodynamic effects of novel XF porphyrin derivativeson prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2005, 49, 1542-1552.
103. Ochsner, M. Photophysical and photobiological processes in the photodynamic therapy of tumours. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 1997, 39, 1-18.
104. Wondrak, G.T.; Jacobson, M.K.; Jacobson, E.L. Identification of quenchers of photoexcited states as novel agents for skin photoprotection. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therapeut. 2005, 312, 482-491.
105. Sies, H. Oxidative stress: Oxidants and antioxidants. Exp. Physiol. 1997, 82, 291-295.
106. Rywkin, S.; Lenny, L.; Goldstein, J.; Geacintov, N.E.; Margolis-Nunno, H.; Horowitz, B. Importance of type I and type II mechanisms in the photodynamic inactivation of viruses in blood with aluminum phthalocyanine derivatives. Photochem. Photobiol. 1992, 56, 463-469.
107. Costa, L.; Tomé, J.P.C.; Faustino, M.A.F.; Neves, M.G.P.S.; Tomé, A.C.; Cavaleiro, J.A.S.; Cunha, A.; Almeida, A. Involvement of type I and type II mechanisms on the photoinactivation of non-enveloped DNA and RNA bacteriophages. Environ. Sci. Tech. 2012, submitted for publication.
108. Lenard, J.; Vanderoef, R. Photoinactivation of influenza virus fusion and infectivity by rose bengal. Photochem. Photobiol. 1993, 58, 527-531.
109. Bisby, R.H.; Morgan, C.G.; Hamblett, I.; Gorman, A.A. 1999. Quenching of singlet oxygen by trolox c, ascorbate, and amino acids: effects on pH and temperature. J. Phys. Chem. A 1999, 103, 7454-7459.
110. Baker, A.; Kanofsky, J.R. Quenching of singlet oxygen bybiomolecules from Ll210 leukemia cells. Photochem. Photobiol. 1992, 55, 523-528.
111. Degar, S.; Prince, A.M.; Pascual, D.; Lavie, G.; Levin, B.; Mazur, Y.; Lavie, D.; Ehrlich, L.S.; Carter, C.; Meruelo, D. Inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus by hypericin: Evidence for photochemical alterations of p24 and a block in uncoating. AIDS Res. Hum. Retrovir. 1992, 8, 1929-1936.
112. Wainwright, M. Local treatment of viral disease using photodynamic therapy. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2003, 21, 510-520.
113. Garcia, G.; Sarrazy, V.; Sol, V.; Morvan, C.L.; Granet, R.; Alves, S.; Krausz, P. DNA photocleavage by porphyrin-polyamine conjugates. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 2009, 17, 767-776.
114. Miranda, M.A. Photosensitization by drugs. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 481-486.
115. Wainwright, M. The use of methylene blue derivatives in blood product disinfection. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 2000, 16, 381-394.
116. McBride, T.J.; Schneider, J.E.; Floyd, R.E.; Loeb, L.A. Mutations induced by methylene blue plus light in single stranded M13mp2. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1992, 89, 6866-6870.
117. OhUigin, C.; McConnell, D.J.; Kelly, J.M.; van der Putten, W.J.M. Methylene blue photosensitised strand cleavage of DNA: Effects of dye binding and oxygen. Nucleic Acids Res. 1987, 15, 7411-7427.
118. Mettath. S.; Munson, B.R.; Pandey, R.K. DNA interaction and photocleavage properties of porphyrins containing cationic substituents at the peripheral position. Bioconjugate Chem. 1999, 10, 94-102.
119. Kubát, P.; Lang, K.; Anzenbacher, P.; Jr.; Jursíkova, K.; Král, V.; Ehrenberg, B. Interaction of novel cationic meso-tetraphenylporphyrins in the ground and excited states with DNA and nucleotides. J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1 2000, 1, 933-941.
120. Caminos, D.A.; Durantini, E.N. Interaction and photodynamic activity of cationic porphyrin derivativesbearing different patterns of charge distribution with GMP and DNA. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 2008, 198, 274-281.
121. Müller-Breitkreutz, K.; Mohr, H. Infection cycle of herpes viruses after photodynamic treatment with methylene blue and light. Transfusions Medizin 1997, 34, 37-42.
122. Schneider, J.E.; Jr.; Pye, Q.; Floyd, R.A. Qβ bacteriophage photoinactivated by methylene blue plus light involves inactivation of its genomic RNA. Photochem. Photobiol. 1999, 70, 902-909.
123. Smetana, Z.; Mendelson, E.; Manor, J.; Van Lier, J.E.; Ben-Hur, E.; Salzberg, S.; Malik, Z. Photodynamic inactivation of herpes simplex viruses with phthalocyanine derivatives. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B: Biol. 1994, 22, 37-43.
124. Ben-Hur, E.; Horowitz, B. Virus inactivation in blood. AIDS 1996, 11, 1183-1190.
125. Girotti, A.W. Photodynamic action of protoporphyrin IX on human erythrocytes: Cross-linking of membrane proteins. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 1976, 72, 1367-1374.
126. Verweij, H.; van Steveninck, J. Model studies on photodynamic cross-linking. Photochem. Photobiol. 1982, 35, 265-267.
127. Macdonald, I.J.; Dougherty, T.J. Basic principles of photodynamic therapy. J. Porphyrin Phthalocyanines 2001, 5, 105-129.
128. Davies, M.J. Singlet oxygen-mediated damage to proteins and its consequences. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm. 2003, 305, 761-770.
129. Afonso, S. G; Enriquez, S.R.; Batlle, C.A.M. The photodynamic and non photodynamic actions of porphyrins. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 1999, 32, 255-266.
130. Jori, G.; Galiazzo, G.; Tamburro, A.M.; Scoffone, E. Dye-sensitized photooxidation as a tool for determining the degree of exposure of amino acid residues in proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 1970, 245, 3375-3383.
131. Malik, Z.; Ladan, H.; Nitzan, Y.; Smetana, Z. Antimicrobial and antiviral activity of porphyrin photosensitization. Proc. SPIE 1993, 2078, 305-312.
132. Malik, Z.; Smetana, Z.; Mendelson, E., Wagner, P.; Salzberg, S.; Ben-Hur, E. Alteration in herpes simplex virus proteins following photodynamic treatment with phthalocyanines. Photochem. Photobiol. 1996, 63, 59S.
133. Yip, L.; Hudson, J.B.; Gruszecka-Kowalik, E.; Zalkow, L.H.; Neil Towers, G.H.N. Antiviral activity of a derivative of the photosensitive compound hypericin. Phytomedicine 1996, 2, 185-190.
134. Sieber, F.; Krueger, G.J.; O'Brien, J.M.; Schober, S.L.; Sensenbrenner, L.L.; Sharkis, S.J. Inactivation of Friend erythroleukemia virus and Friend virus-transformed cells by merocyanine 540-mediated photosensitization. Blood 1989, 73, 345-350.
135. Melki, R.; Gaudin, Y.; Blondel, D. Interaction between tubulin and the viral matrix protein of vesicular stomatitis virus: possible implications in the viral cytopathic effect. Virology 1994, 202, 339-347.
136. Zupán, K.; Herényi, L.; Tóth, K.; Majer, Z.; Csík, G. Binding of cationic porphyrin to isolated and encapsidated viral DNA analyzed by comprehensive spectroscopic methods. Biochemistry 2004, 43, 9151-9159.
137. Yoshikawa, T.T. Antimicrobial resistance and aging: beginning of the end of the antibiotic era? J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2002, 50, S226-S229.
138. Malik, Z.; Gozhansky, S.; Nitzan, Y. Effects of photoactivated HPD on bacteria and antibiotic resistance. Microbios Lett. 1982, 21, 103-112.
139. Maisch, T.; Szeimies, R-M.; Jori, G.; Abels, C. Antibacterial photodynamic therapy in dermatology. Photochem. Photobio. Sci. 2004, 3, 907-917.
140. Pillay, D. Emergence and control of resistance to antiviral drugs in resistance in herpes viruses, hepatitis B virus, and HIV. Commun. Dis. Public Health 1998, 1, 5-13.
141. Reddi, E.; Ceccon, M.; Valduga, G.; Jori, G.; Bommer, J.C.; Elisei, F.; Latterini, L.; Mazzucato, U. Photophysical properties and antibacterial activity of meso-substituted cationic porphyrins. Photochem. Photobiol. 2002, 75, 462-470.
142. Jori, G.; Coppellotti, O. Inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms by photodynamic techniques: Mechanistic aspects and perspective applications. Anti-Infect. Agents Med. Chem. 2007, 6, 119-131.
143. Minnock, A.; Vernon, D.I.; Schofield, J.; Griffiths, J.; Parish, J.H.; Brown, S.B. Mechanism of uptake of a cationic water-soluble pyridinium zinc phthalocyanine across the outer membrane of Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2000, 44, 522-527.
144. Demidova, T.; Hamblin, M. Effects of cell-photosensitizer binding and cell density on microbial photoinactivation. Antimicrob. Agents Ch. 2005, 6, 2329-2335.
145. Jori, G.; Fabris, C.; Soncin, M.; Ferro, S.; Coppellotti, O.; Dei, D.; Fantetti, L.; Chiti, G.; Roncucci, G. Photodynamic therapy in the treatment of microbial infections: Basic principles and perspective applications. Laser. Surg. Med. 2006, 38, 468-481.
146. Wainwright, M. Photoantimicrobials-So what's stopping us? Photodiagn. Photodyn. 2009, 6, 167-169.
147. Merchat, M.; Bertolini, G.; Giacomini, P.; Villanueva, A.; Jori, G. Meso-substituted cationic porphyrins as efficient photosensitizers of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. 1996, 32, 153-157.
148. Dowd, S.E., Pillai, S.D.; Wang, S.; Corapcioglu, M.Y. Delineating the specific influence of virus isoelectric point and size on virus adsorption and transport through sandy soils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64, 405-410.
149. Wainwright, W.; Photoantimicrobials-A PACT against resistance and infection. Drugs Future 2004, 29, 85-93.
150. Kessel, D.; Raymund, L.; Vicente, M.G.H. Localization and photodynamic efficacy of two cationic porphyrins varying in charge distribution. Photochem. Photobiol. 2003, 78, 431-435.
151. Banfi, S.; Caruso, E.; Buccafurni, L.; Battini, V.; Zazzaron, S.; Barbieri, P.; Orlandi, V. Antibacterial activity of tetraaryl-porphyrin photosensitizers: An in vivo study on Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2006, 85, 28-38.
152. Konopka, K.; Goslinski, T. Photodynamic therapy in dentistry. Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med. 2007, 8, 694-707.
153. Robertson, C.A.; Evans, D.H.; Abrahamse, H. Photodynamic therapy (PDT): A short review on cellular mechanisms and cancer research applications for PDT. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2009, 96, 1-8.
154. Brancaleon, L.; Moseley, H. Laser and non-laser light sources for photodynamic therapy. Laser Med. Sci. 2002, 17, 173-186.
155. Veenhuizen, R.B.; Stewart, F.A. The importance of fluence rate in photodynamic therapy: Is there a parallel with ionizing radiation dose-rate effects? Radiother. Oncol. 1995, 37, 131-135.
156. Allison, R.R.; Mota, H.C.; Sibata, C.H. Clinical PD/PDT in North America: an historical review. Photodiagn. Photodyn. 2004, 1, 263-277.
157. Juzeniene, A.; Juzena, P.; Ma, L-W.; Iani, V.; Moan, J. Effectiveness of different light sources for 5-aminolevulinic acid photodynamic therapy. Laser Med. Sci. 2004, 19, 139-149.
158. Kübler, A.C. Photodynamic therapy. Med. Laser Appl. 2005, 20, 37-45.
159. Lukšiene, Z. New approach to inactivation of harmful and pathogenic microorganisms by photosensitization. Food Tech. Biotechnol. 2005, 43, 411-418.
160. Qin, Y.; Luan, X.; Bi, L.; He, G.; Bai, X.; Zhou, C.; Zhang, Z. Toluidine blue-mediated photoinactivation of periodontal pathogens from supragingival plaques. Laser Med. Sci. 2008, 23, 49-54.
161. Schindl, A.; Rosado-Sholosser, B.; Trautinger, F. Reciprocity regulation in photobiology: An overview (in German). Hautarzt 2001, 52, 779-785.
162. Maclean, M.; MacGregor, S.J.; Anderson, J.G.; Woolsey, G.A. The role of oxygen in the visible-light inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2008, 92, 180-184.
163. Langmack, K.; Mehta, R.; Twyman, P.; Norris, P. Topical photodynamic therapy at low fluence rates-theory and practice. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 2001, 60, 37-43.
164. Wagner, S.J.; Storry, J.R.; Mallory, D.A.; Stromberg, R.R.; Benade, L.E.; Friedman, L.I. Red cell alterations associated with virucidal methylene blue phototreatment. Transfusion 1993, 33, 30-36.
165. Wagner, S.J. Virus inactivation in blood components by photoactive phenothiazine dyes. Transfus. Med. Rev. 2002, 16, 61-66.