Percutaneous absorption in diseased skin: An overview

Journal of Applied Toxicology

Volumn 32, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 537-563

  Chiang, Audris ^a   Tudela, Emilie ^a   Maibach, Howard I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Absorption; Damaged skin; Human; Hydrophilic; Percutaneous penetration

Indexed keywords

ACETONE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ACICLOVIR; ADRENALIN; ALUMINUM CHLORIDE; BENZOIC ACID; BUCLADESINE; BUTYL PARABEN; CAFFEINE; CARMUSTINE; CHLOROFORM; CORTISONE; DICLOFENAC; DODECYL SULFATE SODIUM; EMLA; FLURBIPROFEN; HYDROCORTISONE; INULIN; METHANOL; METHYL PARABEN; NICOTINIC ACID; ORGANIC SOLVENT; PENCICLOVIR; PHENOL; POVIDONE IODINE; SALICYLIC ACID; SULFADIAZINE SILVER; UNINDEXED DRUG; UREA; WATER;

ABRASION; ACETONE DELIPIDIZATION; ADHESIVE TAPE STRIPPING; ARTICLE; ATOPIC DERMATITIS; BURN; CHLOROFORM METHANOL DELIPIDIZATION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG INTOXICATION; DYSKERATOSIS; ECZEMA; ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID DEFICIENCY; EXFOLIATIVE DERMATITIS; EXPERIMENTAL STUDY; FREEZING; HEATING; HUMAN; HYDROGEL; HYDROPHILICITY; IRRITANT DERMATITIS; MICROEMULSION; MYCOSIS FUNGOIDES; NONHUMAN; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIATION EXPOSURE; SKIN ABSORPTION; SKIN CANCER; SKIN DEFECT; SKIN IRRITATION; SKIN PENETRATION; SKIN PERMEABILITY; SOLUBILITY; STRATUM CORNEUM; TOXICOLOGICAL PARAMETERS; ULTRAVIOLET IRRADIATION;

ANIMALS; DERMATITIS, ATOPIC; DERMATITIS, IRRITANT; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; FATTY ACIDS, ESSENTIAL; HUMANS; PERMEABILITY; SKIN; SKIN ABSORPTION; SODIUM DODECYL SULFATE;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 84862865908     PISSN: 0260437X     EISSN: 10991263     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jat.1773     Document Type: Article

References (136)

1. Aalto-Korte K. 1995. Improvement of skin barrier function during treatment of atopic dermatitis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 33: 969-972.
2. Aalto-Kore K, Turpeinen M. 1993. Transepidermal water loss and absorption of hydrocortisone in widespread dermatitis. Br. J. Dermatol. 128: 633-635; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1993.tb00258.x.
3. Aalto-Korte K, Turpeinen M. 1995. Quantifying systemic absorption of topical hydrocortisone in erythroderma. Br. J. Dermatol. 133: 403-408; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1995.tb02668.x.
4. Abrams K, Harvell JD, Shriner D, Wertz P, Maibach HI, Rehfeld SJ. 1993. Effect of organic solvents on in vitro human skin water barrier function. J. Invest. Dermatol. 101: 609-613; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12366068.
5. Akomeah FK, Martin GP, Muddle AG, Brown MB. 2008. Effect of abrasion induced by a rotating brush on the skin permeation of solutes with varying physicochemical properties. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 68: 724-734; doi: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.06.005.
6. Anigbogu A, Williams A, Barry B. 1996. Permeation characteristics of 8-methoxypsoralen through human skin; relevance to clinical treatment. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 48: 357-366; doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1996.tb05933.x.
7. Balogh D, Bauer M, Riccabona G. 1985. The influence of povidone-iodine treatment on thyroid hormones in severe burns. J. Hosp. Infect. 6: 147-153; doi: 10.1016/S0195-6701(85)80061-X.
8. Behl CR, Flynn GL, Kurihara T, Smith W, Gatmaitan OG, Higuchi WI, Ho NF, Pierson CL. 1980. Permeability of thermally damaged skin: I. immediate influences of 60°C scalding on hairless mouse skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 75: 340-345.
9. Behl CR, Flynn GL, Barrett M, Walters KA, Linn EE, Mohamed Z, Kurihara T, Ho NF, Higuchi WI. 1981. Permeability of thermally damaged skin: II. Immediate influences of branding at 60°C on hairless mouse skin permeability. Burns. 7: 389-399.
10. Behl CR, Barrett M, Flynn GL, Kurihara T, Walters KA, Gatmaitan OG, Harper N, Higuchi WI, Ho NF, Pierson CL. 1982. Hydration and percutaneous absorption III: Influences of stripping and scalding on hydration alteration of the permeability of hairless mouse skin to water and n-alkanols. J. Pharm. Sci. 71: 229-234.
11. Benfeldt E. 1999. In vivo microdialysis for the investigation of drug levels in the dermis and the effect of barrier perturbation on cutaneous drug penetration: studies in hairless rats and human subjects. Acta Derm. Venerol. Suppl. (Stockh.) 206: 1-59.
12. Benfeldt E, Serup J. 1999. Effect of barrier perturbation on cutaneous penetration of salicylic acid in hairless rats: in vivo pharmacokinetics using microdialysis and non-invasive quantification of barrier function. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 291: 517-526; doi: 10.1007/s004030050447.
13. Benfeldt E, Serup J, Menné T. 1999. Effect of barrier perturbation on cutaneous salicylic acid penetration in human skin: in vivo pharmacokinetics using microdialysis and non-invasive quantification of barrier function. Br. J. Dermatol. 140: 739-748; doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.1999.02859.x.
14. Berenson G, Burch G. 1951. Studies of diffusion of water through dead human skin; the effect of different environmental states and of chemical alterations of the epidermis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 31: 842-853.
15. Boosalis M, McCall J, Ahrenholz D, Solem L, McClain C. 1987. Serum and urinary silver levels in thermal injury patients. Surgery 101: 40-43.
16. Borrás-Blasco J, López A, Moran M, Díez-Sales O, Herráez-Dominguez M. 1997. Influence of sodium lauryl sulphate on the in vitro percutaneous absorption of compounds with different lipophilicity. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 5: 15-22; doi: 10.1016/S0928-0987(96)00184-4.
17. Borrás-Blasco J, Díez-Sales O, López A, Herráez-Domínguez M. 2004. A mathematical approach to predicting the percutaneous absorption enhancing effect of sodium lauryl sulphate. Int. J. Pharm. 269: 121-129; doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2003.09.021.
18. Brain KR, Walters KA, Green DM, Brain S, Loretz LJ, Sharma RK, Dressler WE. 2005. Percutaneous penetration of diethanolamine through human skin in vitro: application from cosmetic vehicles. Food Chem. Toxicol. 43: 681-690; doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2004.12.021.
19. Bronaugh R, Stewart R. 1985. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies V: permeation through damaged skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 74: 1062-1066; doi: 10.1002/jps.2600741008.
20. Bronaugh R, Stewart R, Simon M. 1986a. Methods for in vitro percutaneous absorption studies. VII: use of excised human skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 75: 1094-1097; doi: 10.1002/jps.2600751115.
21. Bronaugh R, Weingarten D, Lowe N. 1986b. Differential rates of percutaneous absorption through the eczematous and normal skin of a monkey. J. Invest. Dermatol. 87: 451-453; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12455487.
22. Bucks D, Maibach H, Menczel E, Wester R. 1983. Percutaneous penetration of hydrocortisone in humans following skin delipidization by 1:1:1 trichloroethane. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 275: 242-245.
23. Chen J, Han CM, Su GL, Tang ZJ, Su SJ, Lin XW. 2007. Randomized controlled trial of the absorbency of four dressings and their effects on the evaporation of burn wounds. Chin. Med. J. 120: 1788-1791.
24. Colombo G, Zucchi A, Allegra F, Colombo P, Zani F, Santi P. 2003. In vitro and in vivo study of 5-methoxypsoralen skin concentration after topical application. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 16: 130-136; doi: 10.1159/000069025.
25. Copoví A, Díez-Sales O, Herráez-Domínguez JV, Herráez-Domínguez M. 2006. Enhancing effect of alpha-hydroxyacids on 'in vitro' permeation across the human skin of compounds with different lipophilicity. Int. J. Pharm. 314: 31-36; doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.01.033.
26. de Jongh C, Jakasa I, Verberk M, Kezic S. 2006. Variation in barrier impairment and inflammation of human skin as determined by sodium lauryl sulphate penetration rate. Br. J. Dermatol. 154: 651-657; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06989.x.
27. Di Nardo A, Wertz P, Giannetti A, Seidernari SL. 1998. Ceramide and cholesterol composition of the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm. Venereol. 78: 27-30; doi: 10.1080/00015559850135788.
28. Dreher F, Arens A, Hostýnek J, Mudumba S, Ademola J, Maibach H. 1998. Colorimetric method for quantifying human stratum corneum removed by adhesive-tape stripping. Acta Derm. Venereol. 78: 186-189; doi: 10.1080/000155598441495.
29. Drexler H, Ulm K, Hubmann M, Hardt R, Göen T, Mondorf W, Lang E, Angerer J, Lehnert G. 1995. Carbon disulphide. III. Risk factors for coronary heart diseases in workers in the viscose industry. Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 67: 243-252.
30. 14C-5-fluorouracil ointment applicated in an ointment to healthy and diseased human skin. Dermatologica 140(suppl. 1): 7-14.
31. Fang JY, Hwang TL, Leu YL. 2003. Effect of enhancers and retarders on percutaneous absorption of flurbiprofen from hydrogels. Int. J. Pharm. 250: 313-325; doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(02)00540-9.
32. 14C hydrocortisone through normal skin: the effect of stripping and occlusion. Arch. Dermatol. 91: 661-666; doi: 10.1001/archderm.1965.01600120093023.
33. Flynn GL, Behl CR, Walters KA, Gatmaitan OG, Wittkowsky A, Kurihara T, Ho NF, Higuchi WI, Pierson CL. 1980. Permeability of thermally damaged skin III: influence of scalding temperature on mass transfer of water and n-alkanols across hairless mouse skin. Burns 8: 47-58; doi: 10.1016/0305-4179(81)90089-9.
34. Frankild S, Andersen K, Nielsen G. 1995. Effect of sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) on in vitro percutaneous penetration of water, hydrocortisone and nickel. Contact Dermatitis 32: 338-345; doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0536.1995.tb00622.x.
35. Froece CL, Simion FA, Rhein LD, Cafan RH, Kligman A. 1990. Stratum corneum lipid removal by surfactants: relation to in vivo irritation. Dermatologica 181: 277-283.
36. Fukuyama K, Inoue N, Suzuki H, Epstein W. 1976. Keratinization. Int. J. Dermatol. 15: 473-489; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1976.tb00713.x.
37. Fuller FW, Parrish M, Nance FC. 1994. A review of the dosimetry of 1% silver sulfadiazine cream in burn wound treatment. J. Burn Care Rehabil. 15: 213-223; doi: 10.1097/00004630-199405000-00003.
38. Fulmer AW, Kramer GJ. 1986. Stratum corneum lipid abnormalities in surfactant-induced dry scaly skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 86: 598-602; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12355351.
39. Gattu S, Maibach HI. 2010. Enhanced absorption through damaged skin: an overview of the in vitro human model. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 23: 171-176; doi: 10.1159/000288163.
40. Gattu S, Maibach HI. 2011. Modest but increased penetration through damaged skin: an overview of the in vivo human model. Skin Pharmacol. Physiol. 24: 2-9; doi: 10.1159/000314995.
41. Goff B, Bachor R, Kollias N, Hasan T. 1992. Effects of photodynamic therapy with topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid on normal skin of hairless guinea pigs. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B 15: 239-251; doi: 10.1016/1011-1344(92)85128-H.
42. Gould A, Sharp P, Smith D, Stegink A, Chase C, Kovacs JC, Penglis S, Chatterton BE, Bunn CL. 2003. Increased permeability of psoriatic skin to the protein, plasminogen activator inhibitor 2. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 295: 249-254; doi: 10.1007/s00403-003-0425-4.
43. Grice K, Sattar H, Baker H. 1973. The cutaneous barrier to salts and water in psoriasis and in normal skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 88: 459-463; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1973.tb15450.x.
44. Günther C, Kecskes A, Staks T, Täuber U. 1998. Percutaneous absorption of methylprednisolone aceponate following topical application of Advantan lotion on intact, inflamed and stripped skin of male volunteers. Skin Pharmacol. Appl. Skin Physiol. 11: 35-42.
45. Hadzija B, Ruddy S, Ballenger E. 1992. Effect of freezing on iontophoretic transport through hairless rat skin. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 44: 387-390; doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1992.tb03630.x.
46. Harada K, Murakami T, Yata N, Yamamoto S. 1992. Role of intercellular lipids in stratum corneum in the percutaneous permeation of drugs. J. Invest. Dermatol. 99: 278-282; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12616623.
47. Harrison S, Barry B, Dugard P. 1984. Effects of freezing on human skin permeability. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 36: 261-262; doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1984.tb04363.x.
48. Hata M, Tokura Y, Takigawa M, Sato M, Shioya Y, Fujikura Y, Imokawa G. 2002. Assessment of epidermal barrier function by photoacoustic spectrometry in relation to its importance in the pathogenesis of atopic dermatitis. Lab. Invest. 82: 1451-1461.
49. Hawkins GJ, Reifenrath W. 1984. Development of an in vitro model for determining the fate of chemicals applied to skin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 4: S133-144; doi: 10.1016/0272-0590(84)90145-3.
50. Ilyin L, Ivannikov A, Parfenov Y, Stolyarov V. 1975. Strontium absorption through damaged and undamaged human skin. Health Phys. 29: 75-80; doi: 10.1097/00004032-197507000-00009.
51. Imokawa G, Akasaki S, Minematsu Y. 1989. Importance of intercellular lipids in water-retention properties of the stratum corneum: induction and recovery study of surfactant dry skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 281: 45-51; doi: 10.1007/BF00424272.
52. Inoue K, Ogawa K, Suzuki Y, Okada J, Kusai A, Ikeda M, Nishimura K. 2000. The skin permeation mechanism of ketotifen: evaluation of permeation pathways and barrier components in the stratum corneum. Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 26: 45-53.
53. Jakasa I, de Jongh C, Verberk M, Bos J, Kezić S. 2006a. Percutaneous penetration of sodium lauryl sulphate is increased in uninvolved skin of patients with atopic dermatitis compared with control subjects. Br. J. Dermatol. 155: 104-109; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07319.x.
54. Jakasa I, Verberk M, Bunge A, Kruse J, Kezić S. 2006b. Increased permeability for polyethylene glycols through skin compromised by sodium lauryl sulphate. Exp. Dermatol. 15: 801-807; doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0625.2006.00478.x.
55. Jakasa I, Verberk MM, Esposito M, Bos JD, Kezić S. 2007. Altered penetration of polyethylene glycols into uninvolved skin of atopic dermatitis patients. J. Invest. Dermatol. 127: 129-134; doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700582.
56. Juhlin L, Rollman O. 1984. Vascular effects of a local anesthetic mixture in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm. Venereol. 64: 439-440.
57. Juhlin L, Hägglund G, Evers H. 1989. Absorption of lidocaine and prilocaine after application of a eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA) on normal and diseased skin. Acta Derm. Venereol. 69: 18-22.
58. Kasting G, Bowman L. 1990a. DC electrical properties of frozen, excised human skin. Pharm. Res. 7: 134-143.
59. Kasting G, Bowman L. 1990b. Electrical analysis of fresh, excised human skin: a comparison with frozen skin. Pharm. Res. 7: 1141-1146.
60. 3H]T-2 toxin penetration through excised human and monkey skin. Food Chem. Toxicol. 24: 221-227; doi: 10.1016/0278-6915(86)90232-2.
61. Kitagawa S, Li H. 1999. Effects of removal of stratum corneum, delipidization and addition of enhancers, ethanol and l-menthol, on skin permeation of benzoic acid and its 4-n-alkyl substituents in excised guinea pig dorsal skin. Chem. Pharm. Bull.(Tokyo) 47: 44-47.
62. Korinth G, Göen T, Kaemeyer M, Broding HC, Drexler H. 2003. Skin strain and its influence on systemic exposure to a glycol ether in offset printing workers. Contact Dermatitis 49: 248-254; doi: 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2003.0242.x.
63. Korinth G, Weiss T, Angerer J, Drexler H. 2006. Dermal absorption of aromatic amines in workers with different skin lesions: a report on 4 cases. J. Occup. Med. Toxicol. 1: 17; doi: 10.1186/1745-6673-1-17.
64. Korinth G, Weiss T, Penkert S, Schaller K, Angerer J, Drexler H. 2007. Percutaneous absorption of aromatic amines in rubber industry workers: impact of impaired skin and skin barrier creams. Occup. Environ. Med. 64: 366-372; doi: 10.1136/oem.2006.027755.
65. Kronevi T, Wahlberg JE, Holmberg B. 1981. Skin pathology following epicutaneous exposure to seven organic solvents. Int. J. Tissue React. 3: 21-30.
66. Lamaud E, Schalla W. 1984. Influence of UV irradiation on penetration of hydrocortisone. In vivo study in hairless rat skin. Br. J. Dermatol. 27(suppl.): 152-157; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1984.tb15595.x.
67. Lambrey B, Schalla W, Kail N, Lahmy J, Schaefer H. 1987. Influence of an essential fatty acid deficient diet on absorption of topical hydrocortisone in the rat. Br. J. Dermatol. 117: 607-615; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1987.tb07493.x.
68. Lauer A, Elder J, Weiner N. 1997. Evaluation of the hairless rat as a model for in vivo percutaneous absorption. J. Pharm. Sci. 86: 13-18; doi: 10.1021/js960350c.
69. Lavrijsen A, Oestmann E, Hermans J, Boddé H, Vermeer B, Ponec M. 1993. Barrier function parameters in various keratinization disorders: transepidermal water loss and vascular response to hexyl nicotinate. Br. J. Dermatol. 129: 547-553; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1993.tb00482.x.
70. Lehman P, Tomlinson R, Johnson J, Olerud J, Akers W, Franz T. 1992. Percutaneous absorption and metabolism of lonapalene in psoriatic skin. Pharm. Res. 9: 1145-1151.
71. Levang A, Zhao K, Singh J. 1999. Effect of ethanol/propylene glycol on the in vitro percutaneous absorption of aspirin, biophysical changes and macroscopic barrier properties of the skin. Int. J. Pharm. 181: 255-263; doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(99)00055-1.
72. Levin J, Maibach H. 2005. The correlation between transepidermal water loss and percutaneous absorption: an overview. J. Control. Release 105: 291-299; doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2004.11.035.
73. Linde YW. 1992. Dry skin in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm. Venereol. Suppl. (Stockh.) 177: 9-13.
74. Lockhart SP, Rushworth A, Azmy AA, Raine PA. 1983. Topical silver sulphadiazine: side effects and urinary excretion. Burns Incl. Therm. Inj. 10: 9-12; doi: 10.1016/0305-4179(83)90121-3.
75. Löffler H, Dreher F, Maibach H. 2004. Stratum corneum adhesive tape stripping: influence of anatomical site, application pressure, duration and removal. Br. J. Dermatol. 151: 746-752; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2004.06084.x.
76. Mafune E, Takahashi M, Takasugi N. 1995. Effect of vehicles on percutaneous absorption of bucladesine (dibutyryl cyclic AMP) in normal and damaged rat skin. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 18: 1539-1543.
77. Maibach HI, Feldmann RJ. 1974. Systemic absorption of pesticides through the skin of man. In Occupational Exposure to Pesticides: Report to the Federal Working Group on Pest Management from the Task Group on Occupational Exposure to Pesticides, Task Group on Occupational Exposure to Pesticides (ed.). Federal Working Group on Pest Management: Washington, DC; 120-127.
78. Mali J. 1956. The transport of water through the human epidermis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 27: 451-469.
79. Malten K, Thiele F. 1973. Evaluation of skin damage. II. Water loss and carbon dioxide release measurements related to skin resistance measurements. Br. J. Dermatol. 89: 565-569.
80. Matoltsy A, Downes A, Sweeney T. 1968. Studies of the epidermal water barrier. II. Investigation of the chemical nature of the water barrier. J. Invest. Dermatol. 50: 19-26.
81. McMaster J, Maibach H, Wester R, Bucks D. 1985. Does rubbing enhance in vivo dermal absorption? In Percutaneous Absorption, Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds). Marcel Dekker: New York; 359.
82. Moan J, Ma L, Iani V. 2001. On the pharmacokinetics of topically applied 5-aminolevulinic acid and two of its esters. Int. J. Cancer 92: 139-143; doi: 10.1002/1097-0215(200102)9999:9999<::AID-IJC1154>3.0.CO;2-K.
83. Moon K, Wester R, Maibach H. 1990. Diseased skin models in the hairless guinea pig: in vivo percutaneous absorption. Dermatologica 180: 8-12; doi: 10.1159/000247977.
84. Morgan C, Renwick A, Friedmann P. 2003. The role of stratum corneum and dermal microvascular perfusion in penetration and tissue levels of water-soluble drugs investigated by microdialysis. Br. J. Dermatol. 148: 434-443; doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05163.x.
85. Murakami T, Yoshioka M, Okamoto I, Yumoto R, Higashi Y, Okahara K, Yata N. 1998. Effect of ointment bases on topical and transdermal delivery of salicylic acid in rats: evaluation by skin microdialysis. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 50: 55-61; doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1998.tb03305.x.
86. Nangia A, Camel E, Berner B, Maibach H. 1993. Influence of skin irritants on percutaneous absorption. Pharm. Res. 10: 1756-1759.
87. Nielsen J. 2005. Percutaneous penetration through slightly damaged skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 296: 560-567; doi: 10.1007/s00403-005-0555-y.
88. Nielsen J, Nielsen F, Sørensen J. 2007. Defense against dermal exposures is only skin deep: significantly increased penetration through slightly damaged skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 299: 423-431; doi: 10.1007/s00403-007-0788-z.
89. Nokhodchi A, Shokri J, Dashbolaghi A, Hassan-Zadeh D, Ghafourian T, Barzegar-Jalali M. 2003. The enhancement effect of surfactants on the penetration of lorazepam through rat skin. Int. J. Pharm. 250: 359-369; doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(02)00554-9.
90. Onken H, Moyer C. 1963. The water barrier in human epidermis. Physical and chemical nature. Arch. Dermatol. 87: 584-590.
91. Ortiz PG, Hansen SH, Shah VP, Menné T, Benfeldt E. 2008. The effect of irritant dermatitis on cutaneous bioavailability of a metronidazole formulation, investigated by microdialysis and dermatopharmacokinetic method. Contact Dermatitis 59: 23-30; doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0536.2008.01348.x.
92. Ortiz PG, Hansen SH, Shah VP, Menné T, Benfeldt E. 2009. Impact of adult atopic dermatitis on topical drug penetration: assessment by cutaneous microdialysis and tape stripping. Acta Derm. Venereol. 89: 33-38; doi: 10.2340/00015555-0562.
93. Osamura H, Jimbo Y, Ishihara M. 1984. Skin penetration of nicotinic acid, methyl nicotinate, and butyl nicotinate in the guinea pig - comparison of in vivo and excised skin, and the effects of four dermatologic conditions. J. Dermatol. 11: 471-481.
94. Papp AA, Uusaro AV, Ruokonen ET. 2009. The effects of topical epinephrine on haemodynamics and markers of tissue perfusion in burned and non-burned patients requiring skin grafting. Burns 35: 832-839; doi: 10.1016/j.burns.2008.10.001.
95. Petitot F, Gautier C, Moreels AM, Frelon S, Paquet F. 2007. Percutaneous penetration of uranium in rats after a contamination on intact or wounded skin. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 127: 125-130; doi: 10.1093/rpd/ncm261.
96. Petitot F, Moreels AM, Paquet F. 2010. Evolution of the percutaneous penetration and distribution of uranyl nitrate as a function of skin-barrier integrity: an in vitro assessment. Drug Chem. Toxicol. 33: 316-324; doi: 10.3109/01480540903431457.
97. Piret J, Désormeaux A, Cormier H, Lamontagne J, Gourde P, Juhász J, Bergeron MG. 2000. Sodium lauryl sulfate increases the efficacy of a topical formulation of foscarnet against herpes simplex virus type 1 cutaneous lesions in mice. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 44: 2263-2270; doi: 10.1128/AAC.44.9.2263-2270.2000.
98. Putterman GJ, Wolejsza NF, Wolfram MA. 1977. The effect of detergent on swelling of stratum corneum. J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 28: 521-532.
99. Putterman GJ, Strassburger J, Fitzgerald JJ. 1981. In vitro sorption of aluminum complex to guinea pig stratum corneum. J. Invest. Dermatol. 77: 319-324; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12482522.
100. Rastogi S, Singh J. 2001. Lipid extraction and transport of hydrophilic solutes through porcine epidermis. Int. J. Pharm. 215: 241-249; doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(01)00766-9.
101. Roberts M, Anderson R, Swarbrick J. 1977. Permeability of human epidermis to phenolic compounds. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 29: 677-683; doi: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.1977.tb11434.x.
102. Schaefer H. 1985. Short-contact therapy. Arch. Dermatol. 121: 1505-1509; doi: 10.1001/archderm.121.12.1505.
103. Schaefer H, Zesch A, Stüttgen G. 1977. Penetration, permeation, and absorption of triamcinolone acetonide in normal and psoriatic skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 258: 241-249; doi: 10.1007/BF00561126.
104. Schaefer H, Schalla W, Lamaud E. 1984. Pharmacological and pharmacokinetic aspects in logical and systemic therapy of psoriasis. In Current Research Problems in Psoriasis, Kröger H, Stüttgen G (eds). Grosse: Berlin; 104-110.
105. Scheuplein R, Ross L. 1970. Effects of surfactants and solvents on the permeability of epidermis. J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem. 21: 853-873.
106. Scott R, Dugard P, Doss A. 1986. Permeability of abnormal rat skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 86: 201-207; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12284280.
107. Shani J, Barak S, Levi D, Ram M, Schachner ER, Schlesinger T, Robberecht H, Van Grieken R, Avrach WW. 1985. Skin penetration of minerals in psoriatics and guinea-pigs bathing in hypertonic salt solutions. Pharmacol. Res. Commun. 17: 501-512; doi: 10.1016/0031-6989(85)90123-7.
108. Shokri J, Nokhodchi A, Dashbolaghi A, Hassan-Zadeh D, Ghafourian T, Barzegar Jalali M. 2001. The effect of surfactants on the skin penetration of diazepam. Int. J. Pharm. 228: 99-107; doi: 10.1016/S0378-5173(01)00805-5.
109. Sintov A, Botner S. 2006. Transdermal drug delivery using microemulsion and aqueous systems: influence of skin storage conditions on the in vitro permeability of diclofenac from aqueous vehicle systems. Int. J. Pharm. 311: 55-62; doi: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2005.12.019.
110. Smits T, Robles C, van Erp P, van de Kerkhof P, Gerritsen M. 2005. Correlation between macroscopic fluorescence and protoporphyrin IX content in psoriasis and actinic keratosis following application of aminolevulinic acid. J. Invest. Dermatol. 125: 833-839; doi: 10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23843.x.
111. Solomon A, Lowe N. 1978. Percutaneous absorption in experimental epidermal proliferation. Arch. Dermatol. 114: 1029-1030; doi: 10.1001/archderm.114.7.1029.
112. Solomon A, Lowe N. 1979. Percutaneous absorption in experimental epidermal disease. Br. J. Dermatol. 100: 717-722; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1979.tb08078.x.
113. Swarbrick J, Lee G, Brom J. 1982. Drug permeation through human skin: I. Effect of storage conditions of skin. J. Invest. Dermatol. 78: 63-66; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12497937.
114. Takahashi K, Sakano H, Yoshida M, Numata N, Mizuno N. 2001. Characterization of the influence of polyol fatty acid esters on the permeation of diclofenac through rat skin. J. Control. Release 73: 351-358; doi: 10.1016/S0168-3659(01)00359-5.
115. Tsai J, Hung P, Sheu H. 2001a. Molecular weight dependence of polyethylene glycol penetration across acetone-disrupted permeability barrier. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 293: 302-307; doi: 10.1007/s004030100229.
116. Tsai J, Sheu H, Hung P, Cheng C. 2001b. Effect of barrier disruption by acetone treatment on the permeability of compounds with various lipophilicities: implications for the permeability of compromised skin. J. Pharm. Sci. 90: 1242-1254; doi: 10.1002/jps.1077.
117. Tsai J, Shen L, Sheu H, Lu C. 2003. Tape stripping and sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment increase the molecular weight cutoff of polyethylene glycol penetration across murine skin. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 295: 169-174; doi: 10.1007/s00403-003-0414-7.
118. Turpeinen M. 1988. Influence of age and severity of dermatitis on the percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone in children. Br. J. Dermatol. 118: 517-522; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1988.tb02461.x.
119. Turpeinen M, Salo O, Leisti S. 1986. Effect of percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone on adrenocortical responsiveness in infants with severe skin disease. Br. J. Dermatol. 115: 475-484; doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.1986.tb06242.x.
120. Turpeinen M, Mashkilleyson N, Björkstén F, Salo O. 1988. Percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone during exacerbation and remission of atopic dermatitis in adults. Acta Derm. Venereol. 68: 331-335.
121. Van den Akker J, de Bruijn H, Beijersbergen van Henegouwen G, Star W, Sterenborg H. 2000a. Protoporphyrin IX fluorescence kinetics and localization after topical application of ALA pentyl ester and ALA on hairless mouse skin with UVB-induced early skin cancer. Photochem. Photobiol. 72: 399-406.
122. Van den Akker J, Iani V, Star W, Sterenborg H, Moan J. 2000b. Topical application of 5-aminolevulinic acid hexyl ester and 5-aminolevulinic acid to normal nude mouse skin: differences in protoporphyrin IX fluorescence kinetics and the role of the stratum corneum. Photochem. Photobiol. 72: 681-689; doi: 10.1562/0031-8655(2000)072<0681:TAOAAH>2.0.CO;2.
123. Van den Akker J, Iani V, Star W, Sterenborg H, Moan J. 2002. Systemic component of protoporphyrin IX production in nude mouse skin upon topical application of aminolevulinic acid depends on the application conditions. Photochem. Photobiol. 75: 172-177; doi: 10.1562/0031-8655(2002)075<0172:SCOPIP>2.0.CO;2.
124. Van den Akker J, Holroyd J, Vernon D, Sterenborg H, Brown S. 2003. Comparative in vitro percutaneous penetration of 5-aminolevulinic acid and two of its esters through excised hairless mouse skin. Lasers Surg. Med. 33: 173-181; doi: 10.1002/lsm.10212.
125. Van den Akker J, Holroyd J, Vernon D, Sterenborg H, Brown S. 2004. Chronic UVB exposure enhances in vitro percutaneous penetration of 5-aminulevulinic acid in hairless mouse skin. Lasers Surg. Med. 34: 141-145; doi: 10.1002/lsm.20004.
126. Wan AT, Conyers RA, Coombs CJ, Masterton JP. 1991. Determination of silver in blood, urine, and tissues of volunteers and burn patients. Clin. Chem. 37: 1683-1687.
127. Wang J, Patel B, Ehmann C, Lowe N. 1987. The release and percutaneous permeation of anthralin products, using clinically involved and uninvolved psoriatic skin. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 16: 812-821; doi: 10.1016/S0190-9622(87)70106-6.
128. Wennberg A, Larkö O, Lönnroth P, Larson G, Krogstad A. 2000. Delta-aminolevulinic acid in superficial basal cell carcinomas and normal skin - a microdialysis and perfusion study. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 25: 317-322; doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2230.2000.00652.x.
129. Wester R, Bucks D, Maibach H. 1983. In vivo percutaneous absorption of hydrocortisone in psoriatic patients and normal volunteers. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 8: 645-647; doi: 10.1016/S0190-9622(83)70072-1.
130. Wester R, Mobayen M, Ryatt K, Bucks D, Maibach H. 1987. In vivo percutaneous absorption of dithranol in psoriatic and normal volunteers. In 4th International Symposium on Psoriasis: Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium, Farber EM, Farber N, Morhenn J (eds). Elsevier: New York; 429.
131. Wickrema Sinha A, Shaw S, Weber D. 1978. Percutaneous absorption and excretion of tritium-labeled diflorasone diacetate, a new topical corticosteroid in the rat, monkey and man. J. Invest. Dermatol. 71: 372-377.
132. Wilhelm K, Surber C, Maibach H. 1991a. Effect of sodium lauryl sulfate-induced skin irritation on in vitro percutaneous absorption of four drugs. J. Invest. Dermatol. 96: 963-967; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12476269.
133. Wilhelm K, Surber C, Maibach H. 1991b. Effect of sodium lauryl sulfate-induced skin irritation on in vivo percutaneous penetration of four drugs. J. Invest. Dermatol. 97: 927-932; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12491710.
134. Wolfram MA, Wolejsza NF, Laden K. 1972. Biomechanical properties of delipidized stratum corneum. J. Invest. Dermatol. 59: 421-426; doi: 10.1111/1523-1747.ep12627597.
135. Yoshiike T, Aikawa Y, Sindhvananda J, Suto H, Nishimura K, Kawamoto T, Ogawa H. 1993. Skin barrier defect in atopic dermatitis: increased permeability of the stratum corneum using dimethyl sulfoxide and theophylline. J. Dermatol. Sci. 5: 92-96; doi: 10.1016/0923-1811(93)90076-2.
136. Zackheim H, Feldmann R, Lindsay C, Maibach H. 1977. Percutaneous absorption of 1, 3-bis (2-chloroethyl)-I-nitrosourea (BCNU, carmustine) in mycosis fungoides. Br. J. Dermatol. 97: 65-67.