Design of nanomaterial synthesis by aerosol processes

Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

Volumn 3, Issue , 2012, Pages 103-127

  Buesser, Beat ^a   Pratsinis, Sotiris E ^a  

^a ETH ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Agglomerate particles; Aggregate particles; Coagulation; Coalescence; Flame aerosol reactors; Functional nanoparticles; Multiscale modeling; Sintering

Indexed keywords

ACCESS POINTS; AEROSOL SYNTHESIS; AGGLOMERATE PARTICLES; CHEMICAL REACTION ENGINEERING; COAGULATION AND SINTERING; DESIGN FEATURES; ELECTROCERAMICS; FLAME AEROSOL REACTOR; FUNCTIONAL NANOPARTICLES; MESOSCALE; MULTI-SCALE DESIGN; MULTI-SCALE MODELING; NANOMATERIAL; ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE; PARTICLE AGGREGATION; PARTICLE CONCENTRATIONS; PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY; TIO; ZNO;

AGGREGATES; ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS; BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS; CATALYSTS; COAGULATION; COALESCENCE; DESIGN; MATERIALS HANDLING; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; NANOSTRUCTURED MATERIALS; OPTICAL FIBERS; PARTICLE SIZE ANALYSIS; QUANTUM THEORY; SINTERING; TITANIUM DIOXIDE; ZINC OXIDE;

AGGLOMERATION;

BIOMATERIAL; GLASS FIBER; NANOMATERIAL; SILICON DIOXIDE; TITANIUM; TITANIUM DIOXIDE; ZINC OXIDE;

AEROSOL; CATALYSIS; CHEMICAL MODEL; CHEMISTRY; GAS; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; PARTICLE SIZE; QUANTUM THEORY; REVIEW;

AEROSOLS; BIOCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS; CATALYSIS; GASES; MODELS, CHEMICAL; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS SIMULATION; NANOSTRUCTURES; OPTICAL FIBERS; PARTICLE SIZE; QUANTUM THEORY; SILICON DIOXIDE; TITANIUM; ZINC OXIDE;

EID: 84862699538     PISSN: 19475438     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-062011-080930     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Rosner DE. 1997. Combustion synthesis and materials processing. Chem. Eng. Educ. 31:228-35
2. Ulrich GD. 1984. Flame synthesis of fine particles. Chem. Eng. News 62:22-29
3. Wegner K, Pratsinis SE. 2003. Scale-up of nanoparticle synthesis in diffusion flame reactors. Chem. Eng. Sci. 58:4581-89
4. Pratsinis SE, Mastrangelo SVR. 1989. Material synthesis in aerosol reactors. Chem. Eng. Prog. 85:62-66
5. Pratsinis SE. 2010. Aerosol-based technologies in nanoscale manufacturing: from functional materials to devices through core chemical engineering. AIChE J. 56:3028-35
6. Kodas TT, Hampden-Smith MJ. 1999. Aerosol Processing of Materials. New York:Wiley
7. Pratsinis SE. 2011. History of manufacture of fine particles in high-temperature aerosol reactors. In Manufacture of Fine Particles, ed. D Ensor, pp. 475-507. Research Triangle Park, NC: RTI Press
8. Bickmore CR, Waldner KF, Treadwell DR, Laine RM. 1996. Ultrafine spinel powders by flame spray pyrolysis of a magnesium aluminum double alkoxide. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79:1419-23
9. Madler L, Kammler HK,Mueller R, Pratsinis SE. 2002. Controlled synthesis of nanostructured particles by flame spray pyrolysis. J. Aerosol Sci. 33:369-89
10. Vollath D. 2008. Plasma synthesis of nanopowders. J. Nanopart. Res. 10:39-57
11. Phillips J, Luhrs CC, RichardM. 2009. Review: engineering particles using the aerosol-through-plasma method. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 37:726-39
12. Kraft M. 2005. Modelling of particulate processes. KONA 23:18-35
13. Barnard AS. 2010. Modelling of nanoparticles: approaches to morphology and evolution. Rep. Prog. Phys. 73:086502
14. Catlow CRA, Bromley ST, Hamad S, Mora-Fonz M, Sokol AA, Woodley SM. 2010. Modelling nanoclusters and nucleation. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 12:786-811
15. Alam MK, Flagan RC. 1986. Controlled nucleation aerosol reactors: production of bulk silicon. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 5:237-48
16. Knipping J, Wiggers H, Rellinghaus B, Roth P, Konjhodzic D, Meier C. 2004. Synthesis of high purity silicon nanoparticles in a low pressure microwave reactor. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 4:1039-44
17. Gleiter H. 1989. Nanocrystalline materials. Prog. Mater. Sci. 33:223-315
18. Kühner G, VollM. 1993. Manufacture of carbon black. In Carbon Black, ed. J-B Donnet, RC Bansal, MJ Wang, M Dekker, pp. 1-66. New York: CRC Press
19. Strobel R, Pratsinis SE. 2007. Flame aerosol synthesis of smart nanostructured materials. J. Mater. Chem. 17:4743-56
20. Athanassiou EK, Grass RN, Stark WJ. 2010. Chemical aerosol engineering as a novel tool for material science: from oxides to salt and metal nanoparticles. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 44:161-72
21. Teoh WY, Amal R, Madler L. 2010. Flame spray pyrolysis: an enabling technology for nanoparticles design and fabrication. Nanoscale 2:1324-47
22. Weimer AW, Roach RP, Haney CN, Moore WG, Rafaniello W. 1991. Rapid carbothermal reduction of boron oxide in a graphite transport reactor. AIChE J. 37:759-68
23. Ryu T, Choi YJ, Hwang S, Sohn HY, Kim I. 2010. Synthesis of yttria-stabilized zirconia nanopowders by a thermal plasma process. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 93:3130-35
24. Widiyastuti W, Purwanto A, Wang W-N, Iskandar F, Setyawan H, Okuyama K. 2009. Nanoparticle formation through solid-fed flame synthesis: experiment and modeling. AIChE J. 55:885-95
25. Osterwalder N, Capello C, Hungerbühler K, Stark W. 2006. Energy consumption during nanoparticle production: How economic is dry synthesis? J. Nanopart. Res. 8:1-9
26. Schimmoeller B, Pratsinis SE, Baiker A. 2011. Flame aerosol synthesis of metal oxide catalysts with unprecedented structural and catalytic properties. ChemCatChem 3:1234-56
27. Tricoli A, Righettoni M, Teleki A. 2010. Semiconductor gas sensors: dry synthesis and application. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 49:7632-59
28. Wiggers H. 2009. Novel material properties based on flame-synthesized nanomaterials. KONA 27:186-94
29. Zimmermann MB, Hilty FM. 2011. Nanocompounds of iron and zinc: their potential in nutrition. Nanoscale 3:2390-98
30. Wasmund EB, Saberi S, Coley KS. 2007. Modeling of an aerosol reactor for optimizing product properties. AIChE J. 53:1429-40
31. Messing GL, Zhang SC, JayanthiGV. 1993. Ceramic powder synthesis by spray pyrolysis. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 76:2707-26
32. Djenadic R, Akgül G, Attenkofer K, Winterer M. 2010. Chemical vapor synthesis and structural characterization of nanocrystalline Zn1-xCoxO (x = 0-0.50) particles by X-ray diffraction and X-ray absorption spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 114:9207-15
33. Sankaran RM, Holunga D, Flagan RC, Giapis KP. 2005. Synthesis of blue luminescent Si nanoparticles using atmospheric-pressure microdischarges. Nano Lett. 5:537-41
34. Mangolini L, Thimsen E, Kortshagen U. 2005. High-yield plasma synthesis of luminescent silicon nanocrystals. Nano Lett. 5:655-59
35. Xiong Y, Pratsinis SE, Mastrangelo SVR. 1992. The effect of ionic additives on aerosol coagulation. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 153:106-17
36. Roth C, Künsch Z, Sonnenfeld A, Rudolf von Rohr P. 2011. Plasma surface modification of powders for pharmaceutical applications. Surf. Coat. Technol. 205(Suppl. 2):S597-600
37. Liao F, Girshick SL, Mook WM, Gerberich WW, Zachariah MR. 2005. Superhard nanocrystalline silicon carbide films. Appl. Phys. Lett. 86:171913
38. Pratsinis SE. 1998. Flame aerosol synthesis of ceramic powders. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 24:197-219
39. Vollath D, Szabó DV. 1998. Synthesis of nanocrystallineMoS2 andWS2 in a microwave plasma. Mater. Lett. 35:236-44
40. van Erven J, Munao D, Fu Z, Trzeciak TM, Janssen R, et al. 2009. The improvement and upscaling of a laser chemical vapor pyrolysis reactor. KONA 27:157-73
41. Semaltianos NG. 2010. Nanoparticles by laser ablation. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 35:105-24
42. Gupta A, Swihart MT, Wiggers H. 2009. Luminescent colloidal dispersion of silicon quantum dots from microwave plasma synthesis: exploring the photoluminescence behavior across the visible spectrum. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19:696-703
43. Granqvist C, Buhrman R. 1976. Ultrafine metal particles. J. Appl. Phys. 47:2200-19
44. Haas V, Birringer R, Gleiter H, Pratsinis SE. 1997. Synthesis of nanostructured powders in an aerosol flow condenser. J. Aerosol Sci. 28:1443-53
45. Elmøe TD, Tricoli A, Grunwaldt J-D, Pratsinis SE. 2009. Filtration of nanoparticles: evolution of cake structure and pressure-drop. J. Aerosol Sci. 40:965-81
46. Wegner K, Walker B, Tsantilis S, Pratsinis SE. 2002. Design of metal nanoparticle synthesis by vapor flow condensation. Chem. Eng. Sci. 57:1753-62
47. Flesch J, Kerner D, Riemenschneider H, Reimert R. 2008. Experiments and modeling on the deacidification of agglomerates of nanoparticles in a fluidized bed. Powder Technol. 183:467-79
48. Rowell JM. 1986. Photonic materials. Sci. Am. 255:146-57
49. 2 nanoparticles. Sens. Actuators B 114:283-95
50. 2 sensor fabricated by combustion chemical vapor deposition. Chem. Mater. 17:3997-4000
51. Krinke T, Fissan H, Deppert K, Magnusson M, Samuelson L. 2001. Positioning of nanometer-sized particles on flat surfaces by direct deposition from the gas phase. Appl. Phys. Lett. 78:3708
52. Barr J, Axelbaum R, Macias M. 2006. Processing salt-encapsulated tantalum nanoparticles for high purity, ultra high surface area applications. J. Nanopart. Res. 8:11-22
53. 3. J. Catal. 197:182-91
54. Kammler HK, Pratsinis SE. 2003. Carbon-coated titania nanostructured particles: continuous, one-step flame-synthesis. J. Mater. Res. 18:2670-76
55. 3 for Li-ion batteries. J. Aerosol Sci. 42:657-67
56. Egerton TA. 1998. The modification of fine powders by inorganic coatings. KONA 16:46-59
57. 2 films. Langmuir 24:12553-58
58. Nienow AM, Roberts JT. 2006. Chemical vapor deposition of zirconium oxide on aerosolized silicon nanoparticles. Chem. Mater. 18:5571-77
59. Buesser B, Pratsinis SE. 2011. Design of gas-phase synthesis of core-shell particles by computational fluid-aerosol dynamics. AIChE J. 57:3132-42
60. 2 nanoparticles. Langmuir 26:5815-22
61. King DM, Spencer Ii JA, Liang X, Hakim LF,Weimer AW. 2007. Atomic layer deposition on particles using a fluidized bed reactor with in situ mass spectrometry. Surf. Coat. Technol. 201:9163-71
62. Liang X, Yu M, Li J, Jiang Y-B, Weimer AW. 2009. Ultra-thin microporous-mesoporous metal oxide films prepared by molecular layer deposition (MLD). Chem. Commun. 2009:7140-42
63. Zhu WH, Pratsinis SE. 1996. Flame synthesis of nanosize powders-effect of flame configuration and oxidant composition. Nanotechnology 622:64-78
64. Walker KL, Geyling FT, Nagel SR. 1980. Thermophoretic deposition of small particles in the modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD) process. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 63:552-58
65. Tsantilis S, Pratsinis SE. 2004. Soft-and hard-agglomerate aerosolsmade at high temperatures. Langmuir 20:5933-39
66. 2 by high-pressure dispersion. Powder Technol. 181:292-300
67. 2 sensitivity and thermal stability. Adv. Funct. Mater. 18:1969-76
68. 2 nanoparticles as gas sensors. J. Appl. Phys. 106:084316
69. Friedlander SK. 2000. Smoke, Dust and Haze: Fundamentals of Aerosol Dynamics. NewYork: OxfordUniv. Press
70. Jullien R, Kolb M, Botet R. 1984. Aggregation by kinetic clustering of clusters in dimensions d > 2. J. Phys. Lett. 45:211-16
71. Meakin P, Jullien R. 1988. The effects of restructuring on the geometry of clusters formed by diffusionlimited, ballistic, and reaction-limited cluster-cluster aggregation. J. Chem. Phys. 89:246-50
72. EggersdorferML, Pratsinis SE. 2012. The structure of agglomerates consisting of polydisperse particles. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 46:347-53
73. Akhtar MK, Lipscomb GG, Pratsinis SE. 1994. Monte Carlo simulation of particle coagulation and sintering. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 21:83-93
74. 2 particlesmade in diffusion flames. Eur. J. Inorg. Chem. 2008:911-18
75. Eggersdorfer ML, Kadau D, Herrmann HJ, Pratsinis SE. 2012. Aggregate morphology evolution by sintering: number and diameter of primary particles. J. Aerosol Sci. 46:7-19
76. Tsantilis S, Kammler HK, Pratsinis SE. 2002. Population balance modeling of flame synthesis of titania nanoparticles. Chem. Eng. Sci. 57:2139-56
77. Xing HS, Koylu UO, Rosner DE. 1999. In situ light-scattering measurements of morphologically evolving flame-synthesized oxide nanoaggregates. Appl. Opt. 38:2686-97
78. Hyeon-Lee J, Beaucage G, Pratsinis SE, Vemury S. 1998. Fractal analysis of flame-synthesized nanostructured silica and titania powders using small-angle X-ray scattering. Langmuir 14:5751-56
79. Camenzind A, Schweizer T, Sztucki M, Pratsinis SE. 2010. Structure and strength of silica-PDMS nanocomposites. Polymer 51:1796-804
80. Park K, Cao F, Kittelson DB,McMurry PH. 2003. Relationship between particle mass and mobility for diesel exhaust particles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 37:577-83
81. Akhtar MK, Pratsinis SE,Mastrangelo SVR. 1992. Dopants in vapor-phase synthesis of titania powders. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 75:3408-16
82. Hinds WC. 1999. Aerosol Technology: Properties, Behavior, and Measurement of Airborne Particles. New York: Wiley
83. Strobel R, Pratsinis SE. 2009. Direct synthesis of maghemite, magnetite and wustite nanoparticles by flame spray pyrolysis. Adv. Powder Technol. 20:190-94
84. Shannon RD, Pask JA. 1964. Topotaxy in the anatase-rutile transformation. Am. Mineral. 49:1707-17
85. Seinfeld JH, Pandis SN. 2006. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 1203
86. Eggersdorfer ML, Kadau D, Herrmann HJ, Pratsinis SE. 2010. Fragmentation and restructuring of soft-agglomerates under shear. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 342:261-68
87. Buesser B, Heine MC, Pratsinis SE. 2009. Coagulation of highly concentrated aerosols. J. Aerosol Sci. 40:89-100
88. 2. Mol. Simul. 6:239-44
89. 2 nanoparticles by molecular dynamics. J. Phys. Chem. C 115:11030-35
90. Thompson SM, Gubbins KE,Walton JPRB, Chantry RAR, Rowlinson JS. 1984. A molecular dynamics study of liquid drops. J. Chem. Phys. 81:530-42
91. 2
92. Rosner DE. 1986. Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems. Stoneham, MA: Butterworths
93. Gelbard F, Seinfeld JH. 1980. Simulation of multicomponent aerosol dynamics. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 78:485-501
94. Xiong Y, Pratsinis SE. 1993. Formation of agglomerate particles by coagulation and sintering. Part I. A two-dimensional solution of the population balance equation. J. Aerosol Sci. 24:283-300
95. Xiong Y, Akhtar MK, Pratsinis SE. 1993. Formation of agglomerate particles by coagulation and sintering. Part II. The evolution of the morphology of aerosol-made titania, silica and silica-doped titania powders. J. Aerosol Sci. 24:301-13
96. Kruis FE, Kusters KA, Pratsinis SE, Scarlett B. 1993. A simple model for the evolution of the characteristics of aggregate particles undergoing coagulation and sintering. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 19:514-26
97. Poon JMH, Immanuel CD, Doyle III FJ, Litster JD. 2008. A three-dimensional population balance model of granulation with a mechanistic representation of the nucleation and aggregation phenomena. Chem. Eng. Sci. 63:1315-29
98. Lee KW. 1983. Change of particle size distribution during Brownian coagulation. J. Colloid Interf. Sci. 92:315-25
99. Whitby ER, McMurry PH. 1997. Modal aerosol dynamics modeling. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 27:673-88
100. Frenklach M. 2002. Method of moments with interpolative closure. Chem. Eng. Sci. 57:2229-39
101. McGraw R. 1997. Description of aerosol dynamics by the quadrature method of moments. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 27:255-65
102. Rosner DE,McGrawR, Tandon P. 2003. Multivariate population balances via moment andMonte Carlo simulation methods: an important sol reaction engineering bivariate example and "mixed" moments for the estimation of deposition, scavenging, and optical properties for populations of nonspherical suspended particles. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 42:2699-711
103. Marchisio DL, Fox RO. 2005. Solution of population balance equations using the direct quadrature method of moments. J. Aerosol Sci. 36:43-73
104. Kim K-S, Pratsinis SE. 1989. Modeling and analysis of modified chemical vapor deposition of optical fiber preforms. Chem. Eng. Sci. 44:2475-82
105. Friedlander SK, Wang CS. 1966. The self-preserving particle size distribution for coagulation by Brownian motion. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 22:126-32
106. Heine MC, Pratsinis SE. 2007. Brownian coagulation at high concentration. Langmuir 23:9882-90
107. Landgrebe JD, Pratsinis SE. 1989. Gas-phasemanufacture of particulates: interplay of chemical reaction and aerosol coagulation in the free-molecular regime. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 28:1474-81
108. Mitchell P, Frenklach M. 2003. Particle aggregation with simultaneous surface growth. Phys. Rev. E 67:061407
109. Vemury S, Pratsinis SE. 1995. Self-preserving size distributions of agglomerates. J. Aerosol Sci. 26:175-85
110. Koch W, Friedlander SK. 1990. The effect of particle coalescence on the surface area of a coagulating aerosol. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 140:419-27
111. KirchhofMJ, Schmid HJ, Peukert W. 2009. Three-dimensional simulation of viscous-flow agglomerate sintering. Phys. Rev. E 80:026319
112. HeineMC, Pratsinis SE. 2007. Polydispersity of primary particles in agglomerates made by coagulation and sintering. J. Aerosol Sci. 38:17-38
113. Ulrich GD. 1971. Theory of particle formation and growth in oxide synthesis flames. Combust. Sci. Technol. 4:47-57
114. Xiong Y, Pratsinis SE. 1991. Gas-phase production of particles in reactive turbulent flows. J. Aerosol Sci. 22:637-55
115. WarrenDR, Seinfeld JH. 1984. Nucleation and growth of aerosol from a continuously reinforced vapor. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 3:135-53
116. Jeong JI, Choi M. 2003. A simple bimodalmodel for the evolution of non-spherical particles undergoing nucleation, coagulation and coalescence. J. Aerosol Sci. 34:965-76
117. Pratsinis SE, Bai H, Biswas P, Frenklach M, Mastrangelo SVR. 1990. Kinetics of titanium(IV) chloride oxidation. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 73:2158-62
118. 4 oxidation. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 61:295-97
119. Gröhn AJ, Buesser B, Jokiniemi JK, Pratsinis SE. 2011. Design of turbulent flame aerosol reactors by mixing-limited fluid dynamics. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 50:3159-68
120. Yu S, Yoon Y, Müller-Roosen M, Kennedy IM. 1998. A two-dimensional discrete-sectional model for metal aerosol dynamics in a flame. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 28:185-96
121. Seto T, Hirota A, Fujimoto T, Shimada M, OkuyamaK. 1997. Sintering of polydisperse nanometer-sized agglomerates. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 27:422-38
122. Seto T, Shimada M, Okuyama K. 1995. Evaluation of sintering of nanometer-sized titania using aerosol method. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 23:183-200
123. Swihart MT, Girshick SL. 1999. Thermochemistry and kinetics of silicon hydride cluster formation during thermal decomposition of silane. J. Phys. Chem. B 103:64-76
124. Dang H, Swihart MT. 2009. Computational modeling of silicon nanoparticle synthesis: II. A twodimensional bivariate model for silicon nanoparticle synthesis in a laser-driven reactor including finiterate coalescence. Aerosol Sci. Technol. 43:554-69
125. Körmer R, Schmid HJ, Peukert W. 2010. Aerosol synthesis of silicon nanoparticles with narrow size distribution. Part 2: Theoretical analysis of the formation mechanism. J. Aerosol Sci. 41:1008-19
126. 2 flames. Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem. 629:1485-90
127. 4. Combust. Flame 156:1764-70
128. Skillas G, Becker C,Mühlenweg H, Behnisch J. 2005. Simulation of particulates in a carbon black reactor. J. Nanopart. Res. 7:15-27
129. Heine MC, Pratsinis SE. 2006. High concentration agglomerate dynamics at high temperatures. Langmuir 22:10238-45
130. 2) species: possible routes to highly symmetrical tetrahedral clusters. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys 9:1078-86
131. 2 from ab initio calculations. Phys. Rev. B 81:075111
132. Mezey EJ. 1966. Pigments and reinforcing agents. In Vapor Deposition, ed. CF Powell, JH Oxley, JM Blocher, pp. 423-51. New York: Wiley
133. Bensberg A, Roth P, Brink R, Lange H. 1999. Modeling of particle evolution in aerosol reactors with coflowing gaseous reactants. AIChE J. 45:2097-107
134. Shih T-H, LiouWW,Shabbir A, Yang Z, Zhu J. 1995. A new k-eeddy viscositymodel for high Reynolds number turbulent flows. Comput. Fluids 24:227-38
135. Launder BE, Reece GJ, Rodi W. 1975. Progress in the development of a Reynolds-stress turbulence closure. J. Fluid. Mech. 68:537-66
136. Hoekstra AJ, Derksen JJ, Van Den AkkerHEA. 1999. An experimental and numerical study of turbulent swirling flow in gas cyclones. Chem. Eng. Sci. 54:2055-65
137. Johannessen T, Pratsinis SE, Livbjerg H. 2001. Computational analysis of coagulation and coalescence in the flame synthesis of titania particles. Powder Technol. 118:242-50
138. Ji Y, Sohn HY, Jang HD, Wan B, Ring TA. 2007. Computational fluid dynamic modeling of a flame reaction process for silica nanopowder synthesis from tetraethylorthosilicate. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 90:3838-45
139. Jang HD. 2001. Experimental study of synthesis of silica nanoparticles by a bench-scale diffusion flame reactor. Powder Technol. 119:102-8
140. Manenti G, Masi M. 2009. Numerical investigation on new configurations for vapor-phase aerosol reactors. Chem. Eng. Sci. 64:3525-35
141. Settumba N, Garrick SC. 2003. Direct numerical simulation of nanoparticle coagulation in a temporal mixing layer via a moment method. J. Aerosol Sci. 34:149-67
142. Yu M, Lin J, Chen L. 2007. Nanoparticle coagulation in a planar jet via moment method. Appl. Math. Mech. 28:1445-53
143. 2 nanoparticle production in flame reactors: Effect of chemical mechanism. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 49:10663-73
144. 2 nanoparticle synthesis in a turbulent flame reactor using detailed nucleation chemistry. Chem. Eng. Sci. 66:4370-81
145. Pratsinis SE, Zhu W, Vemury S. 1996. The role of gas mixing in flame synthesis of titania powders. Powder Technol. 86:87-93
146. Ostraat M, De Blauwe J, Green M, Bell L, Brongersma M, et al. 2001. Synthesis and characterization of aerosol silicon nanocrystal nonvolatile floating-gate memory devices. Appl. Phys. Lett. 79:433
147. 4 and carbon nanocomposites for high power batteries. J. Power Sources 189:149-54
148. 3 sensors for highly selective detection of acetone for easy diagnosis of diabetes by breath analysis. Anal. Chem. 82:3581-87
149. Madler L, Stark WJ, Pratsinis SE. 2002. Rapid synthesis of stable ZnO quantum dots. J. Appl. Phys. 92:6537-40
150. Brunner TJ, Wick P, Manser P, Spohn P, Grass RN, et al. 2006. In vitro cytotoxicity of oxide nanoparticles: comparison to asbestos, silica, and the effect of particle solubility. Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:4374-81
151. Demou E, Stark WJ, Hellweg S. 2009. Particle emission and exposure during nanoparticle synthesis in research laboratories. Ann. Occup. Hyg. 53:829-38
152. Demokritou P, Büchel R, Molina RM, Deloid GM, Brain JD, Pratsinis SE. 2010. Development and characterization of a versatile engineered nanomaterial generation system (VENGES) suitable for toxicological studies. Inhal. Toxicol. 22:107-16