The hidden third: Improving outcome in treatment-resistant depression

Journal of Psychopharmacology

Volumn 26, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 587-602

  Schlaepfer, Thomas E ^a   Ågren, Hans ^b   Monteleone, Palmiero ^c   Gasto, Cristobal ^d   Pitchot, William ^e   Rouillon, Frederick ^f   Nutt, David J ^g   Kasper, Siegfried ^h  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL BONN   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^c SECOND UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BARCELONA   (Spain)

^e UNIVERSITY OF LIÈGE   (Belgium)

^f CENTRE HOSPITALIER SAINTE ANNE   (France)

^g IMPERIAL COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^h MEDICAL UNIVERSITY OF VIENNA   (Austria)

Author keywords

Major depressive disorder; outcomes; remission; treatment resistance

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; AMOXAPINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; ARIPIPRAZOLE; ATYPICAL ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENT; BUSPIRONE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CITALOPRAM; DESIPRAMINE; ESCITALOPRAM; FLUOXETINE; IMIPRAMINE; IPRONIAZID; LIOTHYRONINE; LITHIUM; MIANSERIN; MIRTAZAPINE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE INHIBITOR; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OLANZAPINE; PALIPERIDONE; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN NORADRENALIN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TRANYLCYPROMINE; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENLAFAXINE; ZIPRASIDONE;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ATAXIA; AWARENESS; BEHAVIOR DISORDER; BLURRED VISION; BRAIN DEPTH STIMULATION; CARDIOTOXICITY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CLINICAL EVALUATION; COMA; CONFUSION; CONSTIPATION; CONVULSION; DELIRIUM; DEPRESSION; DIARRHEA; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; DISEASE MARKER; DISEASE SEVERITY; DIZZINESS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FATALITY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; DRUG TOLERABILITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; FATIGUE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENETIC ANALYSIS; HEADACHE; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOTENSION; MAJOR DEPRESSION; NAUSEA; NAUSEA AND VOMITING; NEUROBIOLOGY; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; POLYURIA; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSURGERY; PSYCHOTHERAPY; REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SEDATION; SEIZURE; SEROTONIN SYNDROME; SEROTONINERGIC TRANSMISSION; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SWEATING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TACHYCARDIA; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT PLANNING; TREATMENT RESISTANT DEPRESSION; TREMOR; TUBERCULOSIS; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; URINE RETENTION; VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION; VOMITING; WEAKNESS; WEIGHT GAIN; XEROSTOMIA;

ANTIDEPRESSIVE AGENTS; ANTIPSYCHOTIC AGENTS; DEEP BRAIN STIMULATION; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, TREATMENT-RESISTANT; HUMANS; NEUROTRANSMITTER AGENTS; VAGUS NERVE STIMULATION;

EID: 84861818969     PISSN: 02698811     EISSN: 14617285     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0269881111431748     Document Type: Review

References (159)

1. aan het Rot M, Collins KA, Murrough JW, Perez AM, Reich DL, Charney DS, et al. Safety and efficacy of repeated-dose intravenous ketamine for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2010 ; 67: 139-145
2. Saint Denis: Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire des Produits de Santé ; 2006 :
3. Akhondzadeh S, Jafari S, Raisi F, Nasehi AA, Ghoreishi A, Salehi B, et al. Clinical trial of adjunctive celecoxib treatment in patients with major depression: a double blind and placebo controlled trial. Depress Anxiety. 2009 ; 26: 607-611
4. Altshuler LL, Bauer M, Frye MA, Gitlin MJ, Mintz J, Szuba MP, et al. Does thyroid supplementation accelerate tricyclic antidepressant response? A review and meta-analysis of the literature. Am J Psychiatry. 2001 ; 158: 1617-1622
5. Saint Denis: Agence Nationale d'Accréditation et d'Ivaluation en Santé ; 2002 :
6. Anderson IM. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors versus tricyclic antidepressants: a meta-analysis of efficacy and tolerability. J Affect Disord. 2000 ; 58: 19-36
7. Anderson IM, Ferrier IN, Baldwin RC, Cowen PJ, Howard L, Lewis G, et al. Evidence-based guidelines for treating depressive disorders with antidepressants: a revision of the 2000 British Association for Psychopharmacology guidelines. J Psychopharmacol. 2008 ; 22: 343-396
8. Ansseau M, Demyttenaere K, Heyrman J, Migeotte A, Leyman S, Mignon A. Objective: remission of depression in primary care The Oreon Study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2009 ; 19: 169-176
9. Arbabzadeh-Bouchez S, Tylee A, Lepine JP. A European perspective on depression in the community: the DEPRES study. CNS Spectr. 2002 ; 7: 120-126
10. Aronson R, Offman HJ, Joffe RT, Naylor CD. Triiodothyronine augmentation in the treatment of refractory depression. A meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996 ; 53: 842-848
11. Arroll B, Elley CR, Fishman T, Goodyear-Smith FA, Kenealy T, Blashki G, et al. Antidepressants versus placebo for depression in primary care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009 ;: CD007954
12. Baldessarini R Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Hardman J Limbird L Gilman A, ed. New York: McGraw Hill ; 2001: 447-483.
13. Baldessarini R, Tarazi F Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. Hardman J Limbird L Gilman A, ed. New York: McGraw Hill ; 2001: 485-520.
14. Barbosa L, Berk M, Vorster M. A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of augmentation with lamotrigine or placebo in patients concomitantly treated with fluoxetine for resistant major depressive episodes. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003 ; 64: 403-407
15. Bauer M, Bschor T, Pfennig A, Whybrow PC, Angst J, Versiani M, Moller HJ. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for Biological Treatment of Unipolar Depressive Disorders in Primary Care. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007 ; 8: 67-104
16. Bauer M, Whybrow PC, Angst J, Versiani M, Moller HJ. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for Biological Treatment of Unipolar Depressive Disorders, Part 2: Maintenance treatment of major depressive disorder and treatment of chronic depressive disorders and subthreshold depressions. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2002a ; 3: 69-86
17. Bauer M, Whybrow PC, Angst J, Versiani M, Moller HJ. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) Guidelines for Biological Treatment of Unipolar Depressive Disorders, Part 1: Acute and continuation treatment of major depressive disorder. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2002b ; 3: 5-43
18. Berman RM, Marcus RN, Swanink R, McQuade RD, Carson WH, Corey-Lisle PK, et al. The efficacy and safety of aripiprazole as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 843-853
19. Berman RM, Fava M, Thase ME, Trivedi MH, Swanink R, McQuade RD, et al. Aripiprazole augmentation in major depressive disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study in patients with inadequate response to antidepressants. CNS Spectr. 2009 ; 14: 197-206
20. Bewernick BH, Hurlemann R, Matusch A, Kayser S, Grubert C, Hadrysiewicz B, et al. Nucleus accumbens deep brain stimulation decreases ratings of depression and anxiety in treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2010 ; 67: 110-116
21. Blier P, Ward HE, Tremblay P, Laberge L, Hebert C, Bergeron R. Combination of antidepressant medications from treatment initiation for major depressive disorder: a double-blind randomized study. Am J Psychiatry. 2010 ; 167: 281-288
22. Campbell S, MacQueen G. An update on regional brain volume differences associated with mood disorders. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2006 ; 19: 25-33
23. Carvalho AF, Machado JR, Cavalcante JL. Augmentation strategies for treatment-resistant depression. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2009 ; 22: 7-12
24. Clarke G, O'Mahony SM, Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Verapamil in treatment resistant depression: a role for the P-glycoprotein transporter?. Hum Psychopharmacol. 2009 ; 24: 217-223
25. Connolly KR, Thase ME. If at first you don't succeed: a review of the evidence for antidepressant augmentation, combination and switching strategies. Drugs. 2011 ; 71: 43-64
26. Cooper-Kazaz R, Lerer B. Efficacy and safety of triiodothyronine supplementation in patients with major depressive disorder treated with specific serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008 ; 11: 685-699
27. Crismon ML, Trivedi M, Pigott TA, Rush AJ, Hirschfeld RM, Kahn DA, et al. The Texas Medication Algorithm Project: report of the Texas Consensus Conference Panel on Medication Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999 ; 60: 142-156
28. Crossley NA, Bauer M. Acceleration and augmentation of antidepressants with lithium for depressive disorders: two meta-analyses of randomized, placebo-controlled trials. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 935-940
29. Daban C, Martinez-Aran A, Cruz N, Vieta E. Safety and efficacy of Vagus Nerve Stimulation in treatment-resistant depression. A systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2008 ; 110: 1-15
30. Demyttenaere K, Adelin A, Patrick M, Walthere D, Katrien de B, Michele S. Six-month compliance with antidepressant medication in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 ; 23: 36-42
31. Devanand DP, Sackeim HA, Prudic J. Electroconvulsive therapy in the treatment-resistant patient. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1991 ; 14: 905-923
32. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychiatrie, Psychotherapie und Nervenhellkunde. Berlin: Kurzversion der Behandlung Leitlinien Affektive Erkrankungen ; 2000 :
33. Donohue JM, Pincus HA. Reducing the societal burden of depression: a review of economic costs, quality of care and effects of treatment. Pharmacoeconomics. 2007 ; 25: 7-24
34. Dunner DL, Amsterdam JD, Shelton RC, Loebel A, Romano SJ. Efficacy and tolerability of adjunctive ziprasidone in treatment-resistant depression: a randomized, open-label, pilot study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 1071-1077
35. El-Khalili N, Joyce M, Atkinson S, Buynak RJ, Datto C, Lindgren P, et al. Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder (MDD) in patients with an inadequate response to ongoing antidepressant treatment: a multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2010 ; 13: 917-932
36. EMA (2009) Concept Paper on the Need for Revision of Note for Guidance on Clinical Investigation of Medicinal Products in the Treatment of Depression with Regard to Treatment Resistant Depression. Available at: http://www.ema.europa.eu/pdfs/human/ewp/48436609en.pdf (accessed on: 29 January 2009).
37. EMA (2011) Seroquel XR. European Medicines Agency. http://www.ema.europa. eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/human/referrals/Seroquel-XR/ human-referral-000206.jsp&murl=menus/regulations/regulations.jsp&mid= WC0b01ac0580024e9a (accessed 19 August 2011).
38. Fava M. Diagnosis and definition of treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2003 ; 53: 649-659
39. Fekadu A, Wooderson S, Donaldson C, Markopoulou K, Masterson B, Poon L, et al. A multidimensional tool to quantify treatment resistance in depression: the Maudsley staging method. J Clin Psychiatry. 2009a ; 70: 177-184
40. Fekadu A, Wooderson SC, Markopoulo K, Donaldson C, Papadopoulos A, Cleare AJ. What happens to patients with treatment-resistant depression? A systematic review of medium to long term outcome studies. J Affect Disord. 2009b ; 116: 4-11
41. Fleck MP, Horwath E. Pharmacologic management of difficult-to-treat depression in clinical practice. Psychiatr Serv. 2005 ; 56: 1005-1011
42. Frey R, Schreinzer D, Heiden A, Kasper S. [Use of electroconvulsive therapy in psychiatry]. Nervenarzt. 2001 ; 72: 661-676
43. Gabriel A. Lamotrigine adjunctive treatment in resistant unipolar depression: an open, descriptive study. Depress Anxiety. 2006 ; 23: 485-488
44. Geddes JR. Prodromal symptoms may be identified by people with bipolar or unipolar depression. Evid Based Ment Health. 2003 ; 6: 105
45. Geddes JR, Calabrese JR, Goodwin GM. Lamotrigine for treatment of bipolar depression: independent meta-analysis and meta-regression of individual patient data from five randomised trials. Br J Psychiatry. 2009 ; 194: 4-9
46. George MS, Nahas Z, Lisanby SH, Schlaepfer T, Kozel FA, Greenberg BD. Transcranial magnetic stimulation. Neurosurg Clin N Am. 2003 ; 14: 283-301
47. George MS, Nahas Z, Molloy M, Speer AM, Oliver NC, Li XB, et al. A controlled trial of daily left prefrontal cortex TMS for treating depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2000 ; 48: 962-970
48. George MS, Rush AJ, Marangell LB, Sackeim HA, Brannan SK, Davis SM, et al. A one-year comparison of vagus nerve stimulation with treatment as usual for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2005 ; 58: 364-373
49. George MS, Wassermann EM, Kimbrell TA, Little JT, Williams WE, Danielson AL, et al. Mood improvement following daily left prefrontal repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in patients with depression: a placebo-controlled crossover trial. Am J Psychiatry. 1997 ; 154: 1752-1756
50. Goodwin G, Fleischhacker W, Arango C, Baumann P, Davidson M, de Hert M, et al. Advantages and disadvantages of combination treatment with antipsychotics. ECNP Consensus Meeting. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2009 2008 ; 19: 520-532
51. Hamilton M. A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1960 ; 23: 56-62
52. Hannan N, Hamzah Z, Akinpeloye HO, Meagher D. Venlafaxine-mirtazapine combination in the treatment of persistent depressive illness. J Psychopharmacol. 2007 ; 21: 161-164
53. Hayley S. Toward an anti-inflammatory strategy for depression. Front Behav Neurosci. 2011 ; 5: 19
54. Hunot V, Churchill R, Silva de, Lima M, Teixeira V. Psychological therapies for generalised anxiety disorder. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 ;: CD001848
55. Juruena MF, Cleare AJ, Pariante CM. The hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis, glucocorticoid receptor function and relevance to depression. Rev Bras Psiquiatr. 2004 ; 26: 189-201
56. Kasper S, Spadone C, Verpillat P, Angst J. Onset of action of escitalopram compared with other antidepressants: results of a pooled analysis. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006 ; 21: 105-110
57. Kasper S, Lehofer M, Anditsch M, Bach M, Butterfield-Meissl C, Conca A, et al. Depression - Medikamentoese Therapie. Konsensus-Statement - State of the Art 2007. CliniCum psy Sonderausgabe Jaenner. 2007 2007 ;:
58. Kelly K, Posternak M, Alpert JE. Toward achieving optimal response: understanding and managing antidepressant side effects. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008 ; 10: 409-418
59. Kennedy SH, Lam RW, Parikh SV, Patten SB, Ravindran AV. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. Introduction. J Affect Disord. 2009a ; 117: S1 - S2
60. Kennedy SH, Milev R, Giacobbe P, Ramasubbu R, Lam RW, Parikh SV, et al. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) Clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. IV. Neurostimulation therapies. J Affect Disord. 2009b ; 117: S44 - S53
61. Kiloh LG, Andrews G, Neilson M. The long-term outcome of depressive illness. Br J Psychiatry. 1988 ; 153: 752-757
62. Klein N, Sacher J, Wallner H, Tauscher J, Kasper S. Therapy of treatment resistant depression: focus on the management of TRD with atypical antipsychotics. CNS Spectr. 2004 ; 9: 823-832
63. Kosel M, Schlaepfer TE. Mechanisms and state of the art of vagus nerve stimulation. J ECT. 2002 ; 18: 189-192
64. Kosel M, Schlaepfer TE. Beyond the treatment of epilepsy: new applications of vagus nerve stimulation in psychiatry. CNS Spectr. 2003 ; 8: 515-521
65. Kupfer DJ. Long-term treatment of depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 1991 ; 52: 28-34
66. Lam RW, Kennedy SH, Grigoriadis S, McIntyre RS, Milev R, Ramasubbu R, et al. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. III. Pharmacotherapy. J Affect Disord. 2009 ; 117: S26 - S43
67. Lecrubier Y. Widespread underrecognition and undertreatment of anxiety and mood disorders: results from 3 European studies. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 36-41
68. LeónA (1999) Guía práctica para el tratamiento prolongado de la depresión, Psiquiatrica.com, Palmanova, Mallorca.
69. Liebowitz M, Lam RW, Lepola U, Datto C, Sweitzer D, Eriksson H. Efficacy and tolerability of extended release quetiapine fumarate monotherapy as maintenance treatment of major depressive disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Depress Anxiety. 2010 ; 27: 964-976
70. Lohoff FW. Overview of the genetics of major depressive disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2010 ; 12: 539-546
71. Lotufo-Neto F, Trivedi M, Thase ME. Meta-analysis of the reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type A moclobemide and brofaromine for the treatment of depression. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999 ; 20: 226-247
72. Lozano AM, Mayberg HS, Giacobbe P, Hamani C, Craddock RC, Kennedy SH. Subcallosal cingulate gyrus deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2008 ; 64: 461-467
73. Malhi GS, Ng F, Berk M. Dual-dual action? Combining venlafaxine and mirtazapine in the treatment of depression. Aust N Z J Psychiatry. 2008 ; 42: 346-349
74. Malone DA, Dougherty DD, Rezai AR, Carpenter LL, Friehs GM, Eskandar EN, et al. Deep brain stimulation of the ventral capsule/ventral striatum for treatment-resistant depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2009 ; 65: 267-275
75. Marcus RN, McQuade RD, Carson WH, Hennicken D, Fava M, Simon JS, et al. The efficacy and safety of aripiprazole as adjunctive therapy in major depressive disorder: a second multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 ; 28: 156-165
76. Martin JL, Barbanoj MJ, Schlaepfer TE, Clos S, Perez V, Kulisevsky J, et al. Transcranial magnetic stimulation for treating depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002 ;: CD003493
77. Mayberg HS, Lozano AM, Voon V, McNeely HE, Seminowicz D, Hamani C, et al. Deep brain stimulation for treatment-resistant depression. Neuron. 2005 ; 45: 651-660
78. McCall WV. Electroconvulsive therapy in the era of modern psychopharmacology. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2001 ; 4: 315-324
79. Mendlewicz J. Towards achieving remission in the treatment of depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008 ; 10: 371-375
80. Mendlewicz J. Sleep disturbances: Core symptoms of major depressive disorder rather than associated or comorbid disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2009a ;: 1-7
81. Mendlewicz J. Disruption of the circadian timing systems: molecular mechanisms in mood disorders. CNS Drugs. 2009b ; 23: 15-26
82. Miller AH, Maletic V, Raison CL. Inflammation and its discontents: the role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2009 ; 65: 732-741
83. Mintz J, Mintz LI, Arruda MJ, Hwang SS. Treatments of depression and the functional capacity to work. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992 ; 49: 761-768
84. Molina-Hernandez M, Tellez-Alcantara NP, Perez-Garcia J, Olivera-Lopez JI, Jaramillo-Jaimes MT. Antidepressant-like actions of minocycline combined with several glutamate antagonists. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008 ; 32: 380-386
85. Monteleone P, Maj M. The circadian basis of mood disorders: recent developments and treatment implications. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2008 ; 18: 701-711
86. Montgomery SA. Tolerability of serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor antidepressants. CNS Spectr. 2008 ; 13: 27-33
87. Montgomery SA, Asberg M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br J Psychiatry. 1979 ; 134: 382-389
88. Moreines JL, McClintock SM, Holtzheimer PE. Neuropsychologic effects of neuromodulation techniques for treatment-resistant depression: a review. Brain Stimul. 2011 ; 4: 17-27
89. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet. 2007 ; 370: 851-858
90. Muller N, Schwarz MJ. COX-2 inhibition in schizophrenia and major depression. Curr Pharm Des. 2008 ; 14: 1452-1465
91. Muller N, Schwarz MJ, Dehning S, Douhe A, Cerovecki A, Goldstein-Muller B, et al. The cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib has therapeutic effects in major depression: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo controlled, add-on pilot study to reboxetine. Mol Psychiatry. 2006 ; 11: 680-684
92. Nelson J, Pikalov A, Berman RM. Augmentation treatment in major depressive disorder: focus on aripiprazole. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2008 ; 4: 937-948
93. Nelson JC, Papakostas GI. Atypical antipsychotic augmentation in major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials. Am J Psychiatry. 2009 ; 166: 980-991
94. London: National Institite for Health and Clinical Excellence ; 2009 :
95. Nierenberg AA, Fava M, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Thase ME, McGrath PJ, et al. A comparison of lithium and T(3) augmentation following two failed medication treatments for depression: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 ; 163: 1519-1530
96. Nierenberg AA, Papakostas GI, Petersen T, Montoya HD, Worthington JJ, Tedlow J, et al. Lithium augmentation of nortriptyline for subjects resistant to multiple antidepressants. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2003 ; 23: 92-95
97. Nutt D, Demyttenaere K, Janka Z, Aarre T, Bourin M, Canonico PL, et al. The other face of depression, reduced positive affect: the role of catecholamines in causation and cure. J Psychopharmacol. 2007 ; 21: 461-471
98. O'Reardon JP. Pharmacologic and therapeutic strategies in treatment-resistant depression. Introduction and clinical presentations. CNS Spectr. 2009 ; 14: 4-6
99. Ostacher MJ. Comorbid alcohol and substance abuse dependence in depression: impact on the outcome of antidepressant treatment. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 2007 ; 30: 69-76
100. Pagnin D, de Queiroz V, Pini S, Cassano GB. Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. J ECT. 2004 ; 20: 13-20
101. Papakostas GI. Pharmacologic and therapeutic strategies in treatment-resistant depression. Switching antidepressants vs. conventional augmentation strategies. CNS Spectr. 2009 ; 14: 11-14
102. Papakostas GI, Fava M. Does the probability of receiving placebo influence clinical trial outcome? A meta-regression of double-blind, randomised clinical trials in MDD. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2009 ; 19: 34-40
103. Papakostas GI, Fava M, Thase ME. Treatment of SSRI-resistant depression: a meta-analysis comparing within- versus across-class switches. Biol Psychiatry. 2008 ; 63: 699-704
104. Papakostas GI, Petersen TJ, Nierenberg AA, Murakami JL, Alpert JE, Rosenbaum JF, et al. Ziprasidone augmentation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for SSRI-resistant major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004 ; 65: 217-221
105. Papakostas GI, Shelton RC, Smith J, Fava M. Augmentation of antidepressants with atypical antipsychotic medications for treatment-resistant major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 826-831
106. Parikh SV, Segal ZV, Grigoriadis S, Ravindran AV, Kennedy SH, Lam RW, Patten SB. Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) clinical guidelines for the management of major depressive disorder in adults. II. Psychotherapy alone or in combination with antidepressant medication. J Affect Disord. 2009 ; 117: S15 - S25
107. Paykel ES. Partial remission, residual symptoms, and relapse in depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2008 ; 10: 431-437
108. Petersen T, Papakostas GI, Posternak MA, Kant A, Guyker WM, Iosifescu DV, et al. Empirical testing of two models for staging antidepressant treatment resistance. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2005 ; 25: 336-341
109. Philip NS, Carpenter LL, Tyrka AR, Price LH. Pharmacologic approaches to treatment resistant depression: a re-examination for the modern era. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2010 ; 11: 709-722
110. Preskorn SH, Baker B, Kolluri S, Menniti FS, Krams M, Landen JW. An innovative design to establish proof of concept of the antidepressant effects of the NR2B subunit selective N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist, CP-101,606, in patients with treatment-refractory major depressive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 ; 28: 631-637
111. Prudic J, Sackeim HA, Devanand DP. Medication resistance and clinical response to electroconvulsive therapy. Psychiatry Res. 1990 ; 31: 287-296
112. Richelson E. Interactions of antidepressants with neurotransmitter transporters and receptors and their clinical relevance. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003 ; 64: 5-12
113. Rothschild AJ. Challenges in the treatment of depression with psychotic features. Biol Psychiatry. 2003 ; 53: 680-690
114. Rush AJ, Marangell LB, Sackeim HA, George MS, Brannan SK, Davis SM, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation for treatment-resistant depression: a randomized, controlled acute phase trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2005a ; 58: 347-354
115. Rush AJ, Sackeim HA, Marangell LB, George MS, Brannan SK, Davis SM, et al. Effects of 12 months of vagus nerve stimulation in treatment-resistant depression: a naturalistic study. Biol Psychiatry. 2005b ; 58: 355-363
116. Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Stewart JW, Nierenberg AA, Fava M, Kurian BT, et al. Combining medications to enhance depression outcomes (CO-MED): acute and long-term outcomes of a single-blind randomized study. Am J Psychiatry. 2011 ; 168: 689-701
117. Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Wisniewski SR, Nierenberg AA, Stewart JW, Warden D, et al. Acute and longer-term outcomes in depressed outpatients requiring one or several treatment steps: a STAR*D report. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 ; 163: 1905-1917
118. Rush AJ, Warden D, Wisniewski SR, Fava M, Trivedi MH, Gaynes BN, et al. STAR*D: revising conventional wisdom. CNS Drugs. 2009 ; 23: 627-647
119. Sachdev PS, Sachdev J. Long-term outcome of neurosurgery for the treatment of resistant depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2005 ; 17: 478-485
120. Sackeim HA, Haskett RF, Mulsant BH, Thase ME, Mann JJ, Pettinati HM, et al. Continuation pharmacotherapy in the prevention of relapse following electroconvulsive therapy: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001 ; 285: 1299-1307
121. Sackeim HA, Prudic J, Devanand DP, Decina P, Kerr B, Malitz S. The impact of medication resistance and continuation pharmacotherapy on relapse following response to electroconvulsive therapy in major depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1990 ; 10: 96-104
122. Sanacora G, Saricicek A. GABAergic contributions to the pathophysiology of depression and the mechanism of antidepressant action. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets. 2007 ; 6: 127-140
123. Santos MA, Rocha FL, Hara C. Efficacy and safety of antidepressant augmentation with lamotrigine in patients with treatment-resistant depression: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 ; 10: 187-190
124. Schindler F, Anghelescu IG. Lithium versus lamotrigine augmentation in treatment resistant unipolar depression: a randomized, open-label study. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2007 ; 22: 179-182
125. Schlapfer TE, Bewernick BH. Deep brain stimulation for psychiatric disorders-state of the art. Adv Tech Stand Neurosurg. 2009 ; 34: 37-57
126. Schlaepfer TE, George MS, Mayberg H. WFSBP Guidelines on Brain Stimulation Treatments in Psychiatry. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2010 ; 11: 2-18
127. Schlaepfer T, Kosel M. Novel physical treatments for major depression: vagus nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation and magnetic seizure therapy. Curr Opin Psychiatry. 2004 ; 17: 15-20
128. Schlaepfer TE, Lieb K. Deep brain stimulation for treatment of refractory depression. Lancet. 2005 ; 366: 1420-1422
129. Schmauss M, Messer T. Combining antidepressants: a useful strategy for therapy resistant depression?. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 2009 ; 77: 316-325
130. Schoevers RA, Van HL, Koppelmans V, Kool S, Dekker JJ. Managing the patient with co-morbid depression and an anxiety disorder. Drugs. 2008 ; 68: 1621-1634
131. Shelton RC, Osuntokun O, Heinloth AN, Corya SA. Therapeutic options for treatment-resistant depression. CNS Drugs. 2010 ; 24: 131-161
132. Sirey JA, Bruce ML, Alexopoulos GS, Perlick DA, Friedman SJ, Meyers BS. Stigma as a barrier to recovery: Perceived stigma and patient-rated severity of illness as predictors of antidepressant drug adherence. Psychiatr Serv. 2001 ; 52: 1615-1620
133. Slattery DA, Hudson AL, Nutt DJ. Invited review: the evolution of antidepressant mechanisms. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2004 ; 18: 1-21
134. Società Italiana di Psicopatologia.. 1999 ; Vol. 2010 :
135. Souery D, Amsterdam J, de Montigny C, Lecrubier Y, Montgomery S, Lipp O, et al. Treatment resistant depression: methodological overview and operational criteria. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 1999 ; 9: 83-91
136. Souery D, Papakostas GI, Trivedi MH. Treatment-resistant depression. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006 ; 67: 16-22
137. Souery D, Oswald P, Massat I, Bailer U, Bollen J, Demyttenaere K, et al. Clinical factors associated with treatment resistance in major depressive disorder: results from a European multicenter study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007 ; 68: 1062-1070
138. Stahl M Essential Psychopharmacology: Neuroscientific Basis and Practical Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ; 2000 :
139. Stahl SM, Grady MM, Moret C, Briley M. SNRIs: their pharmacology, clinical efficacy, and tolerability in comparison with other classes of antidepressants. CNS Spectr. 2005 ; 10: 732-747
140. Sullivan PF, Neale MC, Kendler KS. Genetic epidemiology of major depression: review and meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 2000 ; 157: 1552-1562
141. Taylor D, Paton C, Kerwin R The Maudsley Prescribing Guidelines. London: Informa Healthcare ; 2007 :
142. Thase ME, Rush AJ. When at first you don't succeed: sequential strategies for antidepressant nonresponders. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997 ; 58: 23-29
143. Thase ME. New approaches to managing difficult-to-treat depressions. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003 ; 64: 3-4
144. Thase ME. Are SNRIs more effective than SSRIs? A review of the current state of the controversy. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2008 ; 41: 58-85
145. Thase ME. Pharmacologic and therapeutic strategies in treatment-resistant depression. Augmentation strategies. CNS Spectr. 2009 ; 14: 7-10
146. Trivedi MH, Rush AJ, Wisniewski SR, Nierenberg AA, Warden D, Ritz L, et al. Evaluation of outcomes with citalopram for depression using measurement-based care in STAR*D: implications for clinical practice. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 ; 163: 28-40
147. Trivedi MH, Corey-Lisle PK, Guo Z, Lennox RD, Pikalov A, Kim E. Remission, response without remission, and nonresponse in major depressive disorder: impact on functioning. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009 ; 24: 133-138
148. Efficacy and safety of electroconvulsive therapy in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2003 ; 361: 799-808
149. Voon V, Kubu C, Krack P, Houeto JL, Troster AI. Deep brain stimulation: neuropsychological and neuropsychiatric issues. Mov Disord. 2006 ; 21: S305 - S327
150. Wakeling A. Efficacy and side effects of mianserin, a tetracyclic antidepressant. Postgrad Med J. 1983 ; 59: 229-231
151. Warden D, Rush AJ, Trivedi MH, Fava M, Wisniewski SR. The STAR*D Project results: a comprehensive review of findings. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2007 ; 9: 449-459
152. Watanabe N, Omori IM, Nakagawa A, Cipriani A, Barbui C, McGuire H, et al. Mirtazapine versus other antidepressants in the acute-phase treatment of adults with major depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008 ; 69: 1404-1415
153. Wells KB, Stewart A, Hays RD, Burnam MA, Rogers W, Daniels M, et al. The functioning and well-being of depressed patients. Results from the Medical Outcomes Study. JAMA. 1989 ; 262: 914-919
154. Wijkstra J, Nolen WA, Algra A, van Vliet IM, Kahn RS. Relapse prevention in major depressive disorder after successful ECT: a literature review and a naturalistic case series. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2000 ; 102: 454-460
155. Winokur G, Coryell W, Keller M, Endicott J, Akiskal H. A prospective follow-up of patients with bipolar and primary unipolar affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1993 ; 50: 457-465
156. Wittchen HU, Jacobi F. Size and burden of mental disorders in Europe-a critical review and appraisal of 27 studies. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005 ; 15: 357-376
157. Zarate CA, Singh JB, Carlson PJ, Brutsche NE, Ameli R, Luckenbaugh DA, et al. A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006a ; 63: 856-864
158. Zarate CA, Singh JB, Quiroz JA, De Jesus G, Denicoff KK, Luckenbaugh DA, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of memantine in the treatment of major depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2006b ; 163: 153-155
159. Zimmerman M, McGlinchey JB, Posternak MA, Friedman M, Boerescu D, Attiullah N. Remission in depressed outpatients: more than just symptom resolution?. J Psychiatr Res. 2008 ; 42: 797-801