Economic constraints and the turn towards superpower cooperation in the 1980s

The Last Decade of the Cold War: From Conflict Escalation to Conflict Transformation

Volumn , Issue , 2004, Pages 69-98

  Brooks, Stephen G ^a   Wohlforth, William C ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84860652308     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203646205     Document Type: Chapter

References (116)

1. A.Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 4.
2. See also, for example, Peter J.Katzenstein, Robert O.Keohane and Stephen D.Krasner, 'International Organization at its Golden Anniversary', International Organization, vol. 52, no. 4 (Autumn 1998), p. 670;
3. Peter J.Katzenstein, 'Introduction: Alternative Perspectives on National Security', in P.J.Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), p. 2.
4. For an overview of constructivist theory, see Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics.
5. Stephen G.Brooks and William C.Wohlforth, 'Power, Globalization and the End of the Cold War: Reevaluating a Landmark Case for Ideas', International Security, vol. 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000/01), pp. 5-53;
6. idem, 'Economic Constraints and the End of the Cold War', in Wohlforth (ed.), Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, Debates, (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002);
7. idem, 'From Old Thinking to New Thinking in Qualitative Research', International Security vol. 26, no. 4 (Spring 2002), pp. 93-113.
8. John A.Hall, 'Ideas and the Social Sciences', in Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).
9. George Stigler and Gary Becker, 'De Gustibus non est Disputandum', American Economic Review, vol. 67 (1977), pp. 76-90.
10. See Gary Becker, Accounting for Tastes (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996);
11. other notable exceptions include James Fearon 'What is Identity (As We Now Use the Word', unpub. MS, University of Chicago, 1997
12. David Laitin, Identity in Transformation (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998).
13. Kenneth N.Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979).
14. For a further discussion of these theoretical issues, see Stephen G.Brooks, 'The Globalization of Production and International Security', (PhD dissertation, Yale University, 2001), Ch. 3.
15. See the discussion in Stephen G.Brooks, 'Dueling Realisms', International Organization, vol. 51, no. 3 (Summer 1997), esp. pp. 450-3.
16. As William Odom notes, it is important to recognize the 'symbiosis of economic policies and military considerations in the Soviet Union'. Odom, 'The Soviet Military in Transition', Problems of Communism, vol. 39 (May-June 1990), p. 62.
17. On this point, see Jack L.Snyder, 'Anarchy and Culture', International Organization, vol. 56, no. 1 (Winter 2002), pp. 7-45.
18. Alexander Wendt, 'Constructing International Politics', International Security, vol. 20, no. 1 (Summer 1995), p. 74.
19. While what exactly constitutes the 'radical' constructivist position is debatable, Ronald Jepperson, Alexander Wendt and Peter Katzenstein, 'Norms, Identity and Culture in National Security', in Katztenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security, identify the work of Richard Ashley, David Campbell, R.B.J.Walker and Cynthia Weber as being representative of this branch of constructivism.
20. Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, pp. 109-13.
21. For more on how to define identities, see Fearon, 'What is Identity?'; (As We Now Use the Word)?';
22. Wendt Social Theory of International Politics, pp. 224-33.
23. See, for example, Alexander Wendt, 'Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics', International Organization, vol. 46 (1992), pp. 335-92;
24. Mlada Bukovansky, 'American Identity and Neutral Rights From Independence to the War of 1812', International Organization, vol. 51, no. 2 (1997), pp. 209-43;
25. Thomas Banchoff, 'German Identity and European Integration', European Journal of International Relations, vol. 5, no. 3 (1999), pp. 259-89.
26. Some of these other potential causes are reviewed in Paul Kowert and Jeffrey Legro, 'Norms, Identity and Their Limits: A Theoretical Reprise', in Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security, and Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, Ch. 7.
27. George Tsebilis, 'Decision-Making in Political Systems', British Journal of Political Science, vol. 25, no. 3 (July 1995), pp. 289-325.
28. See, for example, Charles Kegley, 'The Neoidealist Moment in International Studies? Realist Myths and the New International Realities', International Studies Quarterly, vol. 37, no. 2 (June 1993), pp. 131-47.
29. See, for example, Coit D.Blacker, Hostage to Revolution: Gorbachev and Soviet Security Policy, 1985-1991 (New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 1993);
30. William Wohlforth, 'Realism and the End of the Cold War', International Security, vol. 19, no. 3 (Winter 1994/95), pp. 91-129.
31. See Vladimir Kontorovich, 'Technological Progress and Research and Development', in Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich (eds), The Disintegration of the Soviet Economic System (New York: Routledge, 1992).
32. Ellman and Kontorovich, The Disintegration of the Soviet Economic System, p. 9.
33. See Noel E.Firth and James H.Noren, Soviet Defense Spending: A History of CIA Estimates, 1950-1990 (Houston, TX: Texas A & M Press, 1998), for the CIA estimate of around 15 per cent in 1980.
34. See Brooks and Wohlforth, 'Power, Globalization and the End of the Cold War', p. 24.
35. Firth and Noren, Soviet Defense Spending, p. 134.
36. Ellman and Kontorovich, Destruction of the Soviet Economic System, p. 293.
37. For thorough reviews of these changes in the structure of global production, and the role of technological shifts in producing them, see Brooks, 'The Globalization of Production and International Security', PhD dissertation, Yale University, 2001, Ch.4.
38. The overwhelming majority (more than 90 per cent, by many estimates) of inter-firm alliances during the 1980s were located within the triad of western Europe, Japan and North America; see Stephen Kobrin, 'The Architecture of Globalization: State Sovereignty in a Networked Global Economy', in J.Dunning (ed.), Governments, Globalization and International Business (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 150.
39. On the changing nature of technological development, see Stephen Kobrin, 'The Architecture of Globalization, pp. 149-50.
40. See, for example, Peter Dicken, Global Shift: Transforming the World Economy (New York: Guilford, 1998), p. 229;
41. Kobrin, 'Architecture of Globalization', p. 150.
42. See World Bank, Global Economic Prospects, p. 42.
43. For a detailed analysis of this point, see Brooks, 'The Globalization of Production and International Security', Ch. 5.
44. See Mark Kramer, 'Ideology and the Cold War', Review of International Studies, vol. 25, no. 4 (October 1999), pp. 539-76.
45. This is the general finding reported in Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich, 'The Collapse of the Soviet System and the Memoir Literature', Europe-Asia Studies, vol. 49, no. 2 (March 1997), pp. 259-79.
46. More specific recollections include: Michael Ellman and Vladimir Kontorovich (eds), The Destruction of the Soviet Economic System: An Insider's Account (Armonk, NY: M.E.Sharpe, 1998);
47. Gorbachev, Memoirs;
48. Vitaliy Ivanovich Vorotnikov, A bylo eto tak...Iz dnevnika chelna Politburo TsK KPSS [That's How it Really Was... From the Diary of a Member of the CC-CPSH Politburo] (Moscow: Sovet Veteranov Knigoizdaniia, 1995;
49. Yegor Gaidar, Days of Defeat and Victory, trans. Jane Ann Miller (Seattle, WA, and London: University of Washington Press, 1999);
50. Nikolai Ryzhkov, Perestroika-Istoriia Predatl'tsv [Perestroika: A History of Betrayals] (Moscow: Novosti, 1992).
51. General analyses that demonstrate this point include: Aleksandr Shubin, Istoki perestroiki: 1978-1984 gg. [The Origins of Perestroika] (Moscow: [s.n.], 1997);
52. Paul Hollander, Political Will and Personal Belief: The Decline and Fall of Soviet Communism (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1999).
53. Particular memoirs that are especially telling on this score are Nikolai Leonov, Likholet'e [Cursed Years] (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1994);
54. Sergei Fëdorovich Akhromeev and G.M.Kornienko, Glazami marshala i diplomata: kriticheskii vzgliad na vneshniuiu politiku SSSR do i posle 1985 goda [Through the Eyes of a Marshal and a Diplomat: A Critical View of USSR Foreign Policy before and after 1985] (Moscow: Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniia, 1992);
55. Anatoly S.Cherniaev, My Six Years with Gorbachev, ed. and trans. Robert D.English and Elizabeth Tucker (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000);
56. Vorotnikov, A bylo eto tak; and Georgii Khosroevich Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody: reformatsiia Gorbacheva glazami ego pomoshchnika [The Price of Freedom: Gorbachev's Reformation through the Eyes of his Aide] (Moscow: Rossika-Zevs, 1993).
57. See, for example, the discussions in Jerry Hough, Opening up the Soviet Economy (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1985);
58. idem, Russia and the West: Gorbachev and the Politics of Reform New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988);
59. Ed Hewett, Reforming the Soviet Economy: Equality versus Efficiency (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1988);
60. Hewett and Gaddy, Open for Business; Leonard Geron, Soviet Foreign Economic Policy under Perestroika (London: Pinter, 1990);
61. NIE 11-18-85, 'Domestic Stresses on the Soviet System', in NSA, 'Understanding the End of the Cold War'.
62. See Hough, Russia and the West. For the distinction between passive and active technology transfers in the Soviet context, see Philip Hanson, Trade and Technology in Soviet-Western Relations (London: Macmillan Press, 1981), pp. 6-29.
63. 'An Interview with Gorbachev', Time, 9 September 1985, p. 25.
64. Speech by Nikolai Ryzkhov to CMEA in December 1986, as cited in Deborah Anne Palmieri (ed.), The USSR and the World Economy: Challenges for the Global Integration of Soviet Markets under Perestroika (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1992), p. 170.
65. Gaddy, The Price of the Past, p. 56.
66. Geron, Soviet Foreign Economic Policy under Perestroika, p. 43.
67. Hough, Russia and the West, p. 199.
68. See, for example, Hewett and Gaddy, Open For Business, Ch. 2;
69. Robert Cutler, 'International Relations Theory and Soviet Conduct Toward the Multilateral Global-Economic Organizations: GATT, IMF, and the World Bank', in Palmieri (ed.), The USSR and the World Economy, p. 171.
70. See Hough, Opening up the Soviet Economy, pp. 56-7.
71. Geron, Soviet Foreign Economic Policy Under Perestroika, p. 47;
72. Palmieri (ed.), The USSR and the World Economy, p. 172.
73. Hewett and Gaddy, Open for Business, p. 77.
74. For more on this critical reversal see Chernyaev, My Six Years, pp. 193-5;
75. Akhromeev and Kornienko, Glazami, p. 55;
76. Ryzhkov Perestroika, pp. 232-3;
77. Eduard Amvrosievich Shevardnadze, Moi vybor: v zashchitu demokratii i svobody [My Choice: In Defence of Democracy and Liberty] (Moscow: Novosti, 1991), pp. 110-11;
78. Vorotnikov, A bylo eto tak, pp. 223.
79. William E.Odom, The Collapse of the Soviet Military (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 225.
80. Akhromeev and Kornienko, Glazami, pp. 314-15.
81. See L.G.Ivashov, Marshal Iazov (Rokovoi Avgust 91-go): Pravda o 'putche' [Marshal Yazov (That Fateful August 1991): The Truth about the 'Putsch'] (Moscow: Biblioteka Zhurnala 'Muzhestvo', 1992), Ch. 2, esp. p. 27.
82. For a discussion of the evidence on this point, see Brooks and Wohlforth, 'From Old Thinking to New Thinking in Qualitative Research'.
83. For a brilliant demonstration of this effect, see Jacques Lévesque, The Enigma of 1989: The USSR and the Liberation of Eastern Europe (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997).
84. Randall Stone, Satellites and Commissars: Strategy and Conflict in the Politics of Soviet-Bloc Trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 134.
85. J.F.Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1988), pp. 129, 138.
86. Stone, Satellites and Commissars, p. 37.
87. See Thane Gustafson, Crisis amid Plenty: The Politics of Soviet Energy under Brezhnev and Gorbachev (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989).
88. Brown, Eastern Europe and Communist Rule, p. 155.
89. Smith, 'Economic Relations', p. 77.
90. Mark Chafetz, Gorbachev, Reform, and the Brezhnev Doctrine: Soviet Policy Toward Eastern Europe, 1985-1990 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993), p. 63.
91. Vladislav Zubok, 'New Evidence on the "Soviet Factor" in the Peaceful Revolutions of 1989', Cold War International History Bulletin, Issue 12/13 (Winter 2001), p. 7.
92. On security matters, Zubok stresses, 'Gorbachev and Shevardnadze had no coherent policy at all for the Warsaw Pact', p. 8.
93. See Vojtech Mastny, 'The Soviet Non-Invasion of Poland in 1980-81 and the End of the Cold War', Working Paper No. 23 (Washington, DC: Cold War International History Project, 1998).
94. Shakhnazarov, Tsena svobody, p. 115.
95. Andrew O.Bennett, Trust Bursting out all Over: The Soviet Side of German Unification', in Wohlforth (ed.), Cold War Endgame: Oral History, Analysis, Debates (University Park, PA: Penn State University Press, 2003).
96. Gorbachev's preventive actions are discussed in Kramer, 'Ideology and the Cold War;'
97. Lévesque, Enigma of 1989.
98. T.Risse, 'Let's Argue! Communicative Action in World Politics', International Organization: vol. 54, no. 1 (2000), pp. 1-40.
99. For an insider's contemporary assessment of the GDR's economy at this time, see Hans Hermann Hertle, 'Staatsbankrott: Der ökonomische Untergang des SED-Staates', Deutschland Archiv, vol. 25, no. 10 (October 1992), pp. 1019-30.
100. Jeffrey Kopstein, The Politics of Economic Decline in East Germany, 1945-1989 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997)
101. Aleksandr Galkin and Anatoly S.Chernyaev, 'Pravdu, i tol'ko pravdu' [The truth, and nothing but the truth], Svobodnaia Mysl', Nos 2-3 (1994), p. 28.
102. Excellent published sources include Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice, Germany Unified and Europe Transformed: A Study in Statecraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995);
103. Angela E.Stent, Russia and Germany Reborn: Unification, the Soviet Collapse, and the New Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999);
104. Adomeit, Imperial Overstretch.
105. Oleg Grinevsky, 'Kak nachilos' ob'edninenie Germanii' [How German unification began], unpublished MS, courtesy of Ambassador Grinevsky.
106. These measures are detailed in Doris G.Wolfgramm, The Kohl Government and German Reunification: Crisis and Foreign Policy (Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1997).
107. They were part of Bonn's larger policy of using economic incentives in the diplomacy of reunification, which is brilliantly documented in Randall E. Newnham, Deutsche Mark Diplomacy (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001).
108. See Shoon Murray, Anchors Against Change: American Opinion Leaders' Beliefs After the Cold War (Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan University Press, 1996).
109. This is the basic theme of Raymond L.Garthoff's magisterial The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994).
110. See Robert M.Gates, In from the Shadows (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996);
111. Jack F.Matlock, Jr, Autopsy on an Empire: The American Ambassador's Account of the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York: Random House, 1995).
112. George Bush and Brent Scowcroft, A World Transformed (New York: Norton, 1998)
113. See, for example, Wendt, Social Theory, p. 129;
114. Wendt, 'Anarchy is What States Make of It', p. 420;
115. Robert G.Herman, 'Identity, Norms, and National Security: The Soviet Foreign Policy Revolution and the End of the Cold War', in Peter J. Katzenstein (ed.), The Culture of National Security, New York: Columbia University Press, 1996', p. 277;
116. Bukovansky, 'American Identity and Neutral Rights from Independence to the War of 1812', p. 217.