Seminole rock's domain

George Washington Law Review

Volumn 79, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 1449-1504

  Stephenson, Matthew C ^a   Pogoriler, Miri ^a  

^a HARVARD LAW SCHOOL   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84860283449     PISSN: 00168076     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (242)

1. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984).
2. Bowles v. Seminole Rock & Sand Co., 325 U.S. 410 (1945).
3. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504 (1994).
4. Auer v. Robbins, 519 U.S. 452 (1997).
5. Stephen Breyer, Judicial Review of Questions of Law and Policy, 38 ADMIN. L. REV. 363, 370 (1986).
6. Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 HARV. L. REV. 2245, 2379-80 (2001).
7. Antonin Scalia, Judicial Deference to Administrative Interpretations of Law, 1989 DUKE L.J. 511, 517. Prominent scholars have also endorsed this understanding as providing the best account of the Chevron doctrine.
8. Thomas W. Merrill & Kristin E. Hickman, Chevron's Domain, 89 GEO. L.J. 833, 836 (2001).
9. Cass R. Sunstein, Law and Administration After Chevron, 90 COLUM. L. REV. 2071, 2086 (1990).
10. Cass R. Sunstein, Chevron Step Zero, 92 VA. L. REV. 187 (2006).
11. Robert A. Anthony, Which Agency Interpretations Should Bind Citizens and the Courts?, 7 YALE J. ON REG. 1, 14-15 (1990).
12. Yoav Dotan, Making Consistency Consistent, 57 ADMIN. L. REV. 995, 1019 (2005).
13. Kristin E. Hickman & Matthew D. Krueger, In Search of the Modern Skidmore Standard, 107 COLUM. L. REV. 1235, 1243, 1257-58 (2007).
14. John F. Manning, Constitutional Structure and Judicial Deference to Agency Interpretations of Agency Rules, 96 COLUM. L. REV. 612, 623-25 (1996).
15. Robert A. Anthony, The Supreme Court and the APA: Sometimes They Just Don't Get It, 10 ADMIN. L.J. AM. U. 1, 17-23, 25-26 (1996).
16. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001).
17. Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134 (1944).
18. Collins v. Nat'l Transp. Safety Bd., 351 F.3d 1246, 1253 (D.C. Cir. 2003).
19. Rapaport v. U.S. Dep't of the Treasury, Office of Thrift Supervision, 59 F.3d. 212, 216-17 (D.C. Cir. 1995).
20. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 515 (1994).
21. Good Samaritan Hosp. v. Shalala, 508 U.S. 402, 417 (1993).
22. Pauley v. BethEnergy Mines, Inc., 501 U.S. 680, 698 (1991).
23. INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U.S. 421, 446 n.30 (1987).
24. Nat'l Cable & Telecomms. Ass'n v. Brand X Internet Servs., 545 U.S. 967, 981 (2005).
25. Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 186-87 (1991).
26. Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 534-35 (2007).
27. MCI Telecomms. Corp. v. Am. Tel. & Tel. Co., 512 U.S. 218, 229 (1994).
28. Abigail R. Moncrieff, Reincarnating the "Major Questions" Exception to Chevron Deference As a Doctrine of Noninterference (or Why Massachusetts v. EPA Got It Wrong), 60 ADMIN. L. REV. 593, 594-95 (2008).
29. David J. Barron & Elena Kagan, Chevron's Nondelegation Doctrine, 2001 SUP. CT. REV. 201.
30. Lisa Schultz Bressman, Chevron's Mistake, 58 DUKE L.J. 549 (2009).
31. Jacob E. Gersen & Anne Joseph O'Connell, Hiding in Plain Sight? Timing and Transparency in the Administrative State, 76 U. CHI. L. REV. 1157, 1198-1201 (2009).
32. Richard J. Pierce Jr., Democratizing the Administrative State, 48 WM. & MARY L. REV. 559, 584-85, 610-11 (2006).
33. Lisa Schultz Bressman, How Mead Has Muddled Judicial Review of Agency Action, 58 VAND. L. REV. 1443 (2005).
34. Thomas W. Merrill, The Mead Doctrine: Rules and Standards, Meta-Rules and Meta-Standards, 54 ADMIN. L. REV. 807, 809 (2002).
35. Matthew C. Stephenson, The Strategic Substitution Effect: Textual Plausibility, Procedural Formality, and Judicial Review of Agency Statutory Interpretations, 120 HARV. L. REV. 528, 533-34 (2006).
36. Adrian Vermeule, Introduction, Mead in the Trenches, 71 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 347, 347 (2003).
37. Scott H. Angstreich, Shoring Up Chevron: A Defense of Seminole Rock Deference to Agency Regulatory Interpretations, 34 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 49, 112 (2000).
38. Peter L. Strauss, Publication Rules in the Rulemaking Spectrum: Assuring Proper Respect for an Essential Element, 53 ADMIN. L. REV. 803, 832-33, 838 (2001).
39. Compare United States v. Lachman, 387 F.3d 42, 54 (1st Cir. 2004).
40. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001).
41. Mercy Catholic Med. Ctr. v. Thompson, 380 F.3d 142, 154-55 (3d Cir. 2004).
42. Mead and Christensen v. Harris Cnty., 529 U.S. 576 (2000).
43. Keys v. Barnhart, 347 F.3d 990, 993 (7th Cir. 2003).
44. Arriaga v. Fla. Pac. Farms, L.L.C., 305 F.3d 1228, 1238 (11th Cir. 2002).
45. U.S. Freightways Corp. v. Comm'r, 270 F.3d 1137, 1142 (7th Cir. 2001).
46. Via Christi Reg'l Med. Ctr., Inc. v. Leavitt, 509 F.3d 1259, 1272 (10th Cir. 2007).
47. Excel Corp. v. USDA, 397 F.3d 1285, 1296 (10th Cir. 2005).
48. Humanoids Grp. v. Rogan, 375 F.3d 301, 306 (4th Cir. 2004).
49. Air Brake Sys., Inc. v. Mineta, 357 F.3d 632, 644 (6th Cir. 2004).
50. Zurich Am. Ins. Co. v. Whittier Props. Inc., 356 F.3d 1132, 1137 (9th Cir. 2004).
51. Taylor v. Vt. Dep't of Educ., 313 F.3d 768, 780 n.7 (2d Cir. 2002).
52. Am. Express Co. v. United States, 262 F.3d 1376, 1382-83 (Fed. Cir. 2001).
53. Akzo Nobel Salt, Inc. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 212 F.3d 1301, 1304 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
54. Maureen B. Callahan, Must Federal Courts Defer to Agency Interpretations of Statutes?: A New Doctrinal Basis for Chevron U.S.A. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 1991 WIS. L. REV. 1275, 1281-83.
55. Bowles v. Seminole Rock & Sand Co., 325 U.S. 410, 414 (1945).
56. Martin v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 499 U.S. 144, 153 (1991).
57. Bruh v. Bessemer Venture Partners III L.P., 464 F.3d 202, 208 (2d Cir. 2006).
58. Gose v. U.S. Postal Serv., 451 F.3d 831, 837 (Fed. Cir. 2006).
59. Cathedral Candle Co. v. ITC, 400 F.3d 1352, 1363-64 (Fed. Cir. 2005).
60. F. Uri & Co. v. Bowles, 152 F.2d 713, 718 (9th Cir. 1945).
61. Porter v. Tankar Gas, Inc., 68 F. Supp. 103, 108, 110 (D. Minn. 1946).
62. FCC v. Fox Television Stations, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1800, 1826 (2009) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
63. Udall v. Tallman, 380 U.S. 1, 16-17 (1965).
64. Dir., Office of Workers' Comp. Programs, U.S. Dep't of Labor v. E. Associated Coal Corp., 54 F.3d 141, 147 (3d Cir. 1995).
65. See Advanta USA, Inc. v. Chao, 350 F.3d 726, 731 (8th Cir. 2003).
66. Paragon Health Network, Inc. v. Thompson, 251 F.3d 1141, 1146-47 (7th Cir. 2001).
67. See Lal v. INS, 255 F.3d 998, 1005 (9th Cir. 2001).
68. Lars Noah, Divining Regulatory Intent: The Place for a "Legislative History" of Agency Rules, 51 HASTINGS L.J. 255, 293 (2000).
69. Caruso v. Blockbuster-Sony Music Entm't Ctr. at the Waterfront, 193 F.3d 730, 733, 737 (3d Cir. 1999).
70. Via Christi Reg'l Med. Ctr., Inc. v. Leavitt, 509 F.3d 1259, 1273 (10th Cir. 2007).
71. Auer v. Robbins, 519 U.S. 452, 462 (1997).
72. Long Island Care at Home, Ltd. v. Coke, 551 U.S. 158, 171 (2007).
73. Reizenstein v. Shinseki, 583 F.3d 1331, 1335 (Fed. Cir. 2009).
74. Smith v. Nicholson, 451 F.3d 1344, 1350-51 (Fed. Cir. 2006).
75. Humanoids Grp. v. Rogan, 375 F.3d 301, 307 (4th Cir. 2004).
76. Zurich Am. Ins. Co. v. Whittier Props. Inc., 356 F.3d 1132, 1137 (9th Cir. 2004).
77. Bigelow v. Dep't of Def., 217 F.3d 875, 878 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
78. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 512 (1994).
79. Pauley v. BethEnergy Mines, Inc., 501 U.S. 680, 697 (1991).
80. Ohio Valley Envtl. Coal. v. Aracoma Coal Co., 556 F.3d 177, 201 (4th Cir. 2009).
81. Amerada Hess Pipeline Corp. v. FERC, 117 F.3d 596, 604 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
82. Pac. Coast Med. Enters. v. Harris, 633 F.2d 123, 131 (9th Cir. 1980).
83. Jicarilla Apache Tribe v. FERC, 578 F.2d 289, 292 (10th Cir. 1978).
84. Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137, 177 (1803).
85. Martin v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 499 U.S. 144, 151 (1991).
86. Bruh v. Bessemer Venture Partners III L.P., 464 F.3d 202, 208 (2d Cir. 2006).
87. S. Shore Hosp., Inc. v. Thompson, 308 F.3d 91, 100 (1st Cir. 2002).
88. Paragon Health Network, Inc. v. Thompson, 251 F.3d 1141, 1146-47 (7th Cir. 2001).
89. Paralyzed Veterans of Am. v. D.C. Arena L.P., 117 F.3d 579, 585 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
90. United States v. Hoyts Cinemas Corp., 380 F.3d 558, 566 (1st Cir. 2004).
91. Paragon Health Network, 251 F.3d at 1146-47.
92. Compare United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 229-31, 236-38 (2001).
93. Nat'l Cable & Telecomms. Ass'n v. Brand X Internet Servs., 545 U.S. 967, 1003-04 (2005) (Breyer, J., concurring).
94. Hoctor v. USDA, 82 F.3d 165, 170 (7th Cir. 1996).
95. Shalala v. Guernsey Mem'l Hosp., 514 U.S. 87, 96 (1995).
96. Walker Stone Co. v. Sec'y of Labor, 156 F.3d 1076, 1083 (10th Cir. 1998).
97. Davila-Bardales v. INS, 27 F.3d 1, 5 (1st Cir. 1994).
98. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 865-66 (1984).
99. Jerry L. Mashaw, Prodelegation: Why Administrators Should Make Political Decisions, 1 J.L. ECON. & ORG. 81, 94-99 (1985).
100. John O. McGinnis, Presidential Review as Constitutional Restoration, 51 DUKE L.J. 901, 932-38 (2001).
101. Jide Nzelibe, The Fable of the Nationalist President and the Parochial Congress, 53 UCLA L. REV. 1217, 1265-67 (2006).
102. Matthew C. Stephenson, Statutory Interpretation by Agencies, in RESEARCH HANDBOOK ON PUBLIC CHOICE AND PUBLIC LAW 285, 286-92 (Daniel A. Ferber & Anne Joseph O'Connell eds., 2010).
103. Air Transp. Ass'n of Am., Inc. v. FAA, 291 F.3d 49, 55 (D.C. Cir. 2002).
104. Mission Grp. Kan., Inc. v. Riley, 146 F.3d 775, 781 (10th Cir. 1998).
105. Gen. Motors Corp. v. Ruckelshaus, 742 F.2d 1561, 1565 (D.C. Cir. 1984) (en banc).
106. Jacob E. Gersen, Legislative Rules Revisited, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 1705, 1705 (2007).
107. John F. Manning, Nonlegislative Rules, 72 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 893, 893-94 (2004).
108. N.Y.C. Emps.' Ret. Sys. v. SEC, 45 F.3d 7, 12 (2d Cir. 1995).
109. Am. Mining Cong. v. Mine Safety & Health Admin., 995 F.2d 1106, 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1993).
110. Pac. Gas & Elec. Co. v. Fed. Power Comm'n, 506 F.2d 33, 38 (D.C. Cir. 1974).
111. Appalachian Power Co. v. EPA, 208 F.3d 1015, 1021 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
112. Chamber of Commerce v. U.S. Dep't of Labor, 174 F.3d 206, 211 (D.C. Cir. 1999).
113. Hoctor v. USDA, 82 F.3d 165, 170 (7th Cir. 1996).
114. Am. Mining Cong., 995 F.2d at 1109-11.
115. Am. Mining Cong., 995 F.2d at 1110.
116. Robert A. Anthony & Michael Asimow, The Court's Deferences-a Foolish Inconsistency, 26 ADMIN. & REG. L. NEWS 10, 10 (2000).
117. E. Donald Elliott, Re-Inventing Rulemaking, 41 DUKE L.J. 1490, 1491-92 (1992).
118. Am. Mining Cong., 995 F.2d at 1111.
119. Adrian Vermeule, Interpretive Choice, 75 N.Y.U. L. REV. 74, 142 (2000).
120. Richard H. Fallon, Jr., Foreword, Implementing the Constitution, 111 HARV. L. REV. 54, 62 (1997).
121. Cass R. Sunstein & Adrian Vermeule, Interpretation and Institutions, 101 MICH. L. REV. 885, 889 (2003).
122. Paralyzed Veterans of Am. v. D.C. Arena L.P., 117 F.3d 579, 584, 588 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
123. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 525 (1994) (Thomas, J., dissenting).
124. Mission Grp. Kan., Inc. v. Riley, 146 F.3d 775, 781-83 (10th Cir. 1998).
125. Gonzales v. Oregon, 546 U.S. 243, 257 (2006).
126. Glover v. Standard Fed. Bank, 283 F.3d 953, 962 (8th Cir. 2002).
127. Cunningham v. Scibana, 259 F.3d 303, 307 n.1 (4th Cir. 2001).
128. Air Transp. Ass'n of Am., Inc. v. FAA, 291 F.3d 49, 55-56 (D.C. Cir. 2002).
129. Hoctor v. USDA, 82 F.3d 165, 170-71 (7th Cir. 1996).
130. Dir., Office of Workers' Comp. Programs, U.S. Dep't of Labor v. Mangifest, 826 F.2d 1318, 1324-25 (3d Cir. 1987).
131. Plateau Mining Corp. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 519 F.3d 1176, 1192-93 (10th Cir. 2008).
132. Cass R. Sunstein, Nondelegation Canons, 67 U. CHI. L. REV. 315, 318-19 (2000).
133. Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass'ns, 531 U.S. 457, 472 (2001).
134. J.W. Hampton, Jr., & Co. v. United States, 276 U.S. 394, 409 (1928).
135. NLRB v. Wyman-Gordon Co., 394 U.S. 759, 764 (1969) (plurality opinion).
136. SEC v. Chenery Corp., 332 U.S. 194, 215-17 (1947) (Jackson, J., dissenting).
137. Bell Aerospace Co. v. NLRB, 475 F.2d 485, 495-96 (2d. Cir. 1973), aff'd in part, rev'd in part, 416 U.S. 267 (1974).
138. NLRB v. Bell Aerospace Co., 416 U.S. 267, 293-95 (1974).
139. Smiley v. Citibank (S.D.), N.A., 517 U.S. 735, 740-41 (1996).
140. Paragon Health Network, Inc. v. Thompson, 251 F.3d 1141, 1146-47 (7th Cir. 2001).
141. Advanta USA, Inc. v. Chao, 350 F.3d 726, 728 (8th Cir. 2003).
142. Porter v. Tankar Gas, Inc., 68 F. Supp. 103, 108 (D. Minn. 1946).
143. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837, 863 (1984).
144. Paralyzed Veterans of Am. v. D.C. Arena L.P., 117 F.3d 579, 586 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
145. Nat'l Cable & Telecomms. Ass'n v. Brand X Internet Servs., 545 U.S. 967 (2005).
146. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 515 (1994).
147. Good Samaritan Hosp. v. Shalala, 508 U.S. 402, 417-18 (1993).
148. Pauley v. BethEnergy Mines, Inc., 501 U.S 680, 698 (1991).
149. INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U.S. 421, 446 n.30 (1987).
150. Franklin v. Kellogg Co., 619 F.3d 604 (6th Cir. 2010).
151. Natural Res. Def. Council v. EPA, 526 F.3d 591 (9th Cir. 2008).
152. Marmolejo-Campos v. Holder, 558 F.3d 903, 919-20, 920 n.2 (9th Cir. 2009).
153. S. Shore Hosp., Inc. v. Thompson, 308 F.3d 91, 102 (1st Cir. 2002).
154. Advanta USA, Inc. v. Chao, 350 F.3d 726, 730-31 (8th Cir. 2003).
155. Cmty. Hosp. of the Monterey Peninsula v. Thompson, 323 F.3d 782, 792 (9th Cir. 2003).
156. Alaska Prof'l Hunters Ass'n v. FAA, 177 F.3d 1030, 1034 (D.C. Cir. 1999).
157. Syncor Int'l Corp. v. Shalala, 127 F.3d 90, 94-95 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
158. Shell Offshore Inc. v. Babbitt, 238 F.3d 622, 629 (5th Cir. 2001).
159. Akzo Nobel Salt, Inc. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 212 F.3d 1301, 1304-05 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
160. F. Uri & Co. v. Bowles, 152 F.2d 713, 715-19 (9th Cir. 1945).
161. Nat'l Cable & Telecomms. Ass'n v. Brand X Internet Servs., 545 U.S. 967, 981, 983-84 (2005).
162. Kenneth A. Bamberger, Provisional Precedent: Protecting Flexibility in Administrative Policymaking, 77 N.Y.U. L. REV. 1272 (2002).
163. E. Donald Elliott, Chevron Matters: How the Chevron Doctrine Redefined the Roles of Congress, Courts and Agencies in Environmental Law, 16 VILL. ENVTL. L.J. 1 (2005).
164. Matthew C. Stephenson & Adrian Vermeule, Chevron Has Only One Step, 95 VA. L. REV. 597 (2009).
165. Advanta USA, Inc. v. Chao, 350 F.3d 726, 730-31 (8th Cir. 2003).
166. Thomas Jefferson Univ. v. Shalala, 512 U.S. 504, 515 (1994).
167. Cmty. Hosp. of the Monterey Peninsula v. Thompson, 323 F.3d 782, 792 (9th Cir. 2003).
168. S. Shore Hosp., Inc. v. Thompson, 308 F.3d 91, 102 (1st Cir. 2002).
169. Paralyzed Veterans of Am. v. D.C. Arena L.P., 117 F.3d 579, 586 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
170. Yehonatan Givati & Matthew C. Stephenson, Judicial Deference to Inconsistent Agency Statutory Interpretations, 40 J. LEGAL STUD. 85, 86 (2011).
171. SEC v. Chenery Corp., 332 U.S. 194, 203 (1947).
172. Dist. Lodge 64, Int'l Ass'n of Machinists & Aerospace Workers v. NLRB, 949 F.2d 441, 447 (D.C. Cir. 1991).
173. Retail, Wholesale & Dep't Store Union v. NLRB, 466 F.2d 380, 390 (D.C. Cir. 1972).
174. Ga. Pac. Corp. v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 25 F.3d 999, 1005-06 (11th Cir. 1994).
175. Rollins Envtl. Servs. (NJ) Inc. v. EPA, 937 F.2d 649, 652-54 (D.C. Cir. 1991).
176. Satellite Broad. Co. v. FCC, 824 F.2d 1, 3-4 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
177. Maxcell Telecom Plus, Inc. v. FCC, 815 F.2d 1551, 1558 (D.C. Cir. 1987).
178. Kropp Forge Co. v. Sec'y of Labor, 657 F. 2d 119, 123-24 (7th Cir. 1981).
179. Dravo Corp. v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 613 F.2d 1227, 1232 (3d Cir. 1980).
180. Diamond Roofing Co. v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 528 F.2d 645, 649-50 (5th Cir. 1976).
181. Radio Athens, Inc. v. FCC, 401 F.2d 398, 404 (D.C. Cir. 1968).
182. Yehonatan Givati, The Optimal Structure of Administrative Policymaking: Rulemaking, Adjudication, Licensing and Advance Ruling 2 (2011) (unpublished manuscript) (on file with author).
183. Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984).
184. INS v. Aguirre-Aguirre, 526 U.S. 415 (1999).
185. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218 (2001).
186. Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. LTV Corp., 496 U.S. 633, 653-56 (1990).
187. EEOC v. Arabian Am. Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244 (1991).
188. Christensen v. Harris Cnty., 529 U.S. 576 (2000).
189. Elizabeth Blackwell Health Ctr. for Women v. Knoll, 61 F.3d 170, 181-82 (3d Cir. 1995).
190. Bowen v. Georgetown Univ. Hosp., 488 U.S. 204, 209 (1988).
191. Jack M. Beermann, End the Failed Chevron Experiment Now: How Chevron Has Failed and Why It Can and Should Be Overruled, 42 CONN. L. REV. 779, 823-26 (2010).
192. Cass R. Sunstein, Beyond Marbury: The Executive's Power to Say What the Law Is, 115 YALE L.J. 2580, 2603 (2006).
193. Humanoids Grp. v. Rogan, 375 F.3d 301, 305 (4th Cir. 2004).
194. Trinity Marine Nashville, Inc. v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 275 F.3d 423, 429 (5th Cir. 2001).
195. Kentuckians for the Commonwealth, Inc. v. Rivenburgh, 317 F.3d 425, 447 (4th Cir. 2003).
196. Shell Offshore Inc. v. Babbitt, 238 F.3d 622, 625 (5th Cir. 2001).
197. Paralyzed Veterans of Am. v. D.C. Arena L.P., 117 F.3d 579, 581-82 (D.C. Cir. 1997).
198. Beaver Plant Operations, Inc. v. Herman, 223 F.3d 25, 28 (1st Cir. 2000).
199. Long Island Care at Home, Ltd. v. Coke, 551 U.S. 158, 171 (2007).
200. United States v. Lachman, 387 F.3d 42, 54-55 (1st Cir. 2004).
201. Fed. Express Corp. v. Holowecki, 552 U.S. 389, 397 (2008).
202. Mercy Catholic Med. Ctr. v. Thompson, 380 F.3d 142, 154-55 (3d Cir. 2004).
203. Keys v. Barnhart, 347 F.3d 990, 993 (7th Cir. 2003).
204. U.S. Freightways Corp. v. Comm'r, 270 F.3d 1137, 1142 (7th Cir. 2001).
205. Coeur Alaska, Inc. v. Se. Alaska Conservation Council, 129 S. Ct. 2458, 2469-73 (2009).
206. Via Christi Reg'l Med. Ctr., Inc. v. Leavitt, 509 F.3d 1259, 1272 (10th Cir. 2007).
207. Excel Corp. v. USDA, 397 F.3d 1285, 1296 (10th Cir. 2005).
208. Humanoids Grp. v. Rogan, 375 F.3d 301, 307 (4th Cir. 2004).
209. Air Brake Sys., Inc. v. Mineta, 357 F.3d 632, 644 (6th Cir. 2004).
210. Zurich Am. Ins. Co. v. Whittier Props. Inc., 356 F.3d 1132, 1137 (9th Cir. 2004).
211. Taylor v. Vt. Dep't of Educ., 313 F.3d 768, 780 n.7 (2d Cir. 2002).
212. Chalenor v. Univ. of N.D., 291 F.3d 1042, 1046-47 (8th Cir. 2002).
213. Am. Express Co. v. United States, 262 F.3d 1376, 1382-83 (Fed. Cir. 2001).
214. Akzo Nobel Salt, Inc. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 212 F.3d 1301, 1304 (D.C. Cir. 2000).
215. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 246 (2001) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
216. Oregon v. Ashcroft, 368 F.3d 1118, 1120-21 (9th Cir. 2004), aff'd.
217. Gonzales v. Oregon, 546 U.S. 243 (2006).
218. Am. Postal Workers Union v. U.S. Postal Serv., 707 F.2d 548, 560 (D.C. Cir. 1983).
219. Nat'l Automatic Laundry & Cleaning Council v. Shultz, 443 F.2d 689, 701-02 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
220. Richard E. Levy & Sidney A. Shapiro, Administrative Procedure and the Decline of the Trial, 51 U. KAN. L. REV. 473, 496-97 (2003).
221. United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 228, 238 n.19 (2001).
222. Bowen v. Georgetown Univ. Hosp., 488 U.S. 204, 212-13 (1988).
223. NLRB v. Bell Aerospace Co., 416 U.S. 267, 294 (1974).
224. William T. Mayton, The Legislative Resolution of the Rulemaking Versus Adjudication Problem in Agency Lawmaking, 1980 DUKE L.J. 103, 103.
225. Richard J. Pierce, Jr., Two Problems in Administrative Law: Political Polarity on the District of Columbia Circuit and Judicial Deterrence of Agency Rulemaking, 1988 DUKE L.J. 300, 308-09.
226. David L. Shapiro, The Choice of Rulemaking or Adjudication in the Development of Administrative Policy, 78 HARV. L. REV. 921, 929 (1965).
227. George Robert Johnson Jr., The Split-Enforcement Model: Some Conclusions from the OSHA and MSHA Experiences, 39 ADMIN. L. REV. 315 (1987).
228. Martin v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 499 U.S. 144, 147-48 (1991).
229. W. Christian Schumann, The Allocation of Authority Under the Mine Act: Is the Authority to Decide Questions of Policy Vested in the Secretary of Labor or in the Review Commission?, 98 W. VA. L. REV. 1063, 1065-66 (1996).
230. Collins v. Nat'l Transp. Safety Bd., 351 F.3d 1246, 1248-49 (D.C. Cir. 2003).
231. Richard H. Fallon, Jr., Enforcing Aviation Safety Regulations: The Case for a Split-Enforcement Model of Agency Adjudication, 4 ADMIN. L.J. AM. U. 389, 396-98 (1991).
232. Martin v. Occupational Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 499 U.S. 144 (1991).
233. Speed Mining, Inc. v. Fed. Mine Safety & Health Review Comm'n, 528 F.3d 310, 319 (4th Cir. 2008).
234. Dir., Office of Workers' Comp. Programs, U.S. Dep't of Labor v. Gen. Dynamics Corp., 982 F.2d 790, 794-95 (2nd Cir. 1992).
235. Pension Benefit Guar. Corp. v. LTV Corp., 496 U.S. 633, 651-52 (1990).
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237. Steven G. Calabresi, Some Normative Arguments for the Unitary Executive, 48 ARK. L. REV. 23, 67 (1995).
238. Frank H. Easterbrook, The State of Madison's Vision of the State: A Public Choice Perspective, 107 HARV. L. REV. 1328, 1341-43 (1994).
239. Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654, 685-96 (1988).
240. Humphrey's Ex'r v. United States, 295 U.S. 602, 625-26 (1935).
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242. Elizabeth Garrett, Legislating Chevron, 101 MICH. L. REV. 2637, 2640 (2003).