Racial socialization in cross-racial families

Journal of Black Psychology

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 228-253

  Snyder, Cyndy R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Multiracial; Racial socialization; Racism; Schools; Transracial adoption

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859590182     PISSN: 00957984     EISSN: 15524558     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095798411416457     Document Type: Article

References (88)

1. Apfelbaum E. P.,Sommers S. R.,Norton M. I.Seeing race and seeming racist? Evaluating strategic colorblindness in social interaction.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;95:918-932.
2. Andujo E.Ethnic identity of transethnically adopted Hispanic adolescents.Social Work. 1988;33:531-535.
3. Bakari R.Preservice teachers' attitudes toward teaching African-American students.Urban Education. 2003;38:640-654.
4. Bandura A.Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall; 1977:.
5. Bell D.Faces at the bottom of the well. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1993:.
6. Biafora F. A.,Warheit G. J.,Zimmerman R. S.,Gil A. G.Racial mistrust and deviant behaviors among ethnically diverse Black adolescent boys.Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 1993;23:891-910.
7. Bonilla-Silva E.Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield; 2006:.
8. Bowman P. J.,Howard C.Race-related socialization, motivation, and academic achievement: A study of Black youths in three-generation families.Journal of American Academy of Child Psychiatry. 1985;24:134-141.
9. Boykin A. W.,Toms F. D. Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments. McAdoo H. P.McAdoo J. L., ed. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1985:33-51.
10. Brown D.African American resiliency: Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors.Journal of Black Psychology. 2008;34:32-48.
11. Brown U. M.Black/White interracial young adults: Quest for racial identity.American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. 1995;65:125-130.
12. Burawoy M.The extended case method.Sociological Theory. 1998;16 (1): 1-33.
13. Carroll G.Mundane extreme environmental stress and African American families: A case for recognizing different realities.Journal of Comparative Family Studies. 1998;29:271-284.
14. Carstens C.,Julia M.Ethnoracial awareness in intercountry adoption: U.S. experiences.International Social Work. 2000;43:61-73.
15. Carter R.Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress.Counseling Psychologist. 2007;35 (1): 13-105.
16. Caughy M. O.,Randolph S. M.,O'Campo P. J.The Africentric home environment inventory: An observational measure of the racial socialization features of the home environment for African American preschool children.Journal of Black Psychology. 2002;28:37-52.
17. Clark R.,Anderson N. B.,Clark V. R.,Williams D. R.Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model.American Psychologist. 1999;54:805-816.
18. Constantine M. G.,Blackmon S. M.Black adolescents' racial socialization experiences: Their relations to home, school, and peer self-esteem.Journal of Black Studies. 2002;32:322-335.
19. Coutinho M. J.,Oswald D. P.Disproportionate representation in special education: A synthesis and recommendations.Journal of Child and Family Studies. 2000;9:135-156.
20. Crabtree B. F.,Miller W. L.Doing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1999:.
21. DeBerry K. M.,Scarr S.,Weinberg R.Family racial socialization and ecological competence: Longitudinal assessments of African American transracial adoptees.Child Development. 1996;67:2375-2399.
22. Delgado R.,Stefancic J.Critical race theory: An introduction. New York: New York University Press; 2001:.
23. Delpit L.Other people's children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. New York, NY: New Press; 1995:.
24. Demo D. H.,Hughes M.Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans.Social Psychology Quarterly. 1990;53:364-374.
25. Dovidio J. F.On the nature of contemporary prejudice: The third wave.Journal of Social Issues. 2001;57:829-849.
26. The funding gap 2005: Low-income and minority students are shortchanged by most states. Washington, DC: Author; 2005. Education Trust.
27. Teaching inequality: How poor and minority students are shortchanged on teacher quality. Washington, DC: Author; 2006. Education Trust.
28. Edwards A.,Polite C.Children of the dream: The psychology of Black success. New York, NY: Doubleday; 1992:.
29. Feigelman W.,Silverman A. R.Chosen children: New patterns of adoptive relationships. New York, NY: Praeger; 1983:.
30. Ferguson R.Teachers' perceptions and expectations and the Black-White Test score gap.Urban Education. 2003;38:460-507.
31. Frankenberg R.White women race matters: The social construction of Whiteness. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press; 1993.
32. Friedlander M. L.,Larney L. C.,Skau M.,Hotaling M.,Cutting M. L.,Schwam M.Bicultural identification: Experiences of internationally adopted children and their parents.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2000;47:187-198.
33. Garcia Coll C.,Lamberty G.,Jenkins R.,McAdoo H. P.,Crnic K.,Wasik B. H.,García H.An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children.Child Development. 1996;67:1891-1914.
34. Helms J. E.Black and White racial identity: Theory, research and practice. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1993:.
35. Hughes D.,Chen L.When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization in African American families.Applied Developmental Science. 1997;1:200-214.
36. Hughes D.,Johnson D.Correlates in children's experiences of parents' racial socialization behaviors.Journal of Marriage and Family. 2001;63:981-995.
37. Hughes D.,Johnson D.,Smith E.,Rodriguez J.,Stevenson H. C.,Spicer P.Parents' ethnic/racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study.Developmental Psychology. 2006;42:747-770.
38. Huh N. S.,Reid W. K.Intercountry, transracial adoption and ethnic identity.International Social Work. 2000;43:75-87.
39. Irvine J. J.Black students and school failure: Policies, practices, and prescriptions. New York, NY: Praeger; 1991:.
40. Johnson P. R.,Shireman J. F.,Watson K.W.Transracial adoption and the development of Black identity at age eight.Child Welfare. 1987;66:45-55.
41. Kozol J.Savage inequalities. New York, NY: Crown; 1991.
42. Ladson-Billings G. Just what is critical race theory and what's it doing in a nice field like education? Race is...race isn't: Critical race theory and qualitative studies in education. Parker L.Deyhle D.Villenas S., ed. Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1999.
43. Marshall S.Ethnic socialization of African American children: Implications for parenting, identity development, and academic achievement.Journal of Youth and Adolescence. 1995;24:377-396.
44. McHale S. M.,Crouter A. C.,Kim H.,Burton L. M.,Davis K. D.,Dotterer A. M.,Swanson D. P.Mothers' and fathers' racial socialization in African American families: Implications for youth.Child Development. 2006;77:1387-1402.
45. McIntosh P.White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women's studies. Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women, Wellesley College; 1988.
46. McKinley C.The book of Sarahs. New York, NY: Counterpoint; 2002:.
47. McKown C.,Strambler M.Developmental antecedents and social and academic consequences of stereotype-consciousness in middle childhood.Child Development. 2009;80:1643-1659.
48. McRoy R. G.,Zurcher L. A.Transracial and inracial adoptees. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas; 1983:.
49. Miles M. B.,Huberman A. M.Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1994:.
50. Neblett E. W.,Philip C. L.,Cogburn C. D.,Sellers R. M.African adolescents' discrimination experiences and academic achievement: Racial socialization as a cultural compensatory and protective factor.Journal of Black Psychology. 2006;32:199-218.
51. Noguera P. A.Preventing and producing violence: A critical analysis of responses to school violence.Harvard Educational Review. 1995;65:189-212.
52. Oakes J.Keeping track: How schools structure equality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1985:.
53. Patton M. Q. Qualitative evaluation and research methods. 1990. (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
54. Patton S.Birthmarks: Transracial adoption in contemporary America. New York: New York University Press; 2000:.
55. Perry T. L.The transracial adoption controversy: An analysis of discourse and subordination.New York University Review of Law and Social Change. 1994;21:33-34.
56. Peters M. F. Racial socialization of young Black children., Black children: Social, educational, and parental environment. McAdoo H. P.McAdoo J. L., ed. Newbury Park, CA: SAGE; 2002:159-173. (Original work published 1985)
57. Pierce C. Offensive mechanisms. The Black seventies. Barbour R., ed. Boston, MA: Poter Sargent; 1970:265-283.
58. Pierce C. Psychiatric problems of the Black minority, American handbook of psychiatry. Arieti S., ed. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1974:512-523.
59. Pierce C. Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture, and disaster. Mental health, racism, and sexism. Charles V. W.Rieker P. P.Kramer B. M.Brown B. S., ed. London, England: Taylor & Francis; 1995:277-293.
60. RaibleJ. (1990). The significance of racial identity in transracially adopted young adults. Retrieved from http://nysccc.org/family-supports/transracial-transcultural/voices-of-adoptees/the-significance-of-racial-identity/.
61. RollinsA. (2009). Racially socializing biracial youth: A cultural ecological study of parental influences on racial identity (Unpublished master's thesis). University of North Carolina, Greensboro.
62. Root M. P. P.Loves revolution: Interracial marriage. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press; 2001:.
63. Rosenbloom S. R.,Way N.Experiences of discrimination among African American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents in an urban high school.Youth & Society. 2004;35:420-451.
64. Samuels G. M."Being raised by White people": Navigating racial difference among adopted multiracial adults.Journal of Marriage and Family. 2009;71:80-94.
65. Sanders Thompson V. L.Socialization to race and its relationship to racial identification among African Americans.Journal of Black Psychology. 1994;20:175-188.
66. Schatzman L. Dimensional analysis: Notes on an alternative approach to the grounding of theory in qualitative research, Social organization and social process. Maines D. R., ed. New York, NY: Aldine DeGruyter; 1991:303-314.
67. Senna D.Caucasia. New York, NY: Riverhead Books; 1998:.
68. Simon R. J.,Roorda R.In their own voices. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 2000:.
69. Smith W. A.,Yosso T. J.,Solórzano D. G.Racial primes and Black misandry on historically White campuses: Towards a critical race accountability in educational administration.Educational Administration Quarterly. 2007;43:559-585.
70. Spencer M. B. Old issues and new theorizing about African American youth: A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory African American youth: Their status in the United States. Taylor R. L., ed. Westport, CT: Praeger; 1995:37-69.
71. Spencer M. B.,Dupree D.,Hartman T.A phenomenological variant of ecological systems theory: A self-organization perspective in context.Development and Psychopathology. 1997;9:817-833.
72. Steele C. M.A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape the intellectual identities and performance of women and African Americans.American Psychologist. 1997;52:613-629.
73. Steinberg G.,Hall B.Inside transracial adoption. Indianapolis, IN: Perspectives Press; 2000:.
74. Stevenson H. C.Racial socialization in African American families: The art of balancing intolerance and survival.Family Journal. 1994;2:190-198.
75. Stevenson H. C.Relationship of adolescent perceptions of racial socialization to racial identity.Journal of Black Psychology. 1995;21:49-70.
76. Stevenson H. C.,Cameron R.,Herrero-Taylor T.,Davis G. Y.Development of the teenager experience of racial socialization scale: Correlates of race-related socialization frequency from the perspective of Black youth.Journal of Black Psychology. 2002;28:84-106.
77. Stevenson H. C.,Reed J.,Bodison P.,Bishop A.Racism stress management: Racial social beliefs and the experience of depression and anger in African American youth.Youth and Society. 1997;29:197-222.
78. Strauss A.,Corbin J.Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage; 1990:.
79. Tajfel H.,Turner J. C.Psychology and intergroup relations. 1985). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In Worchel S.AustinW. G. (Eds.), (2nd ed., pp. 7-24). Chicago, IL: Nelson-Hall
80. Tatum B. D.Why are all the Black kids sitting together in the cafeteria? And other conversations about race. New York, NY: Basic Books; 1997:.
81. Thomas A. J.,Speight S. L.Racial identity and racial socialization attitudes of African American parents.Journal of Black Psychology. 1999;25:152-170.
82. Thornton M. C.Family life in Black America. Taylor R. J.Jackson J. S.Chatters L. M., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; 1997:201-215.
83. Thornton M. C.,Chatters L. M.,Taylor R. J.,Allen W. R.Sociodemographic and environmental correlates of racial socialization by Black parents.Child Development. 1990;61:401-409.
84. From subjects to subjectivities: A handbook of interpretive and participatory methods. Tolman D. L.Brydon-Miller M., ed. New York: New York University Press; 2001:.
85. Trenka J. J.,Oparah J. C.,Shin S. Y.Outsiders within: Writing on transracial adoption. Cambridge, MA: South End Press; 2006:.
86. Weinstein R. S.,Gregory A.,Strambler M.Intractable self-fulfilling prophecies: Fifty years after.Brown v. Board of Education American Psychologist. 2004;59:511-520.
87. Weiss R.Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview studies. New York, NY: Free Press; 1994:.
88. Williams D. R.,Neighbors H. W.,Jackson J. S.Ethnic-racial discrimination and health: Findings from community studies.American Journal of Public Health. 2003;93:200-208.