Floral and environmental gradients on a late Cretaceous landscape

Ecological Monographs

Volumn 82, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 23-47

  Wing, Scott L ^a   Strömberg, Caroline A E ^b   Hickey, Leo J ^c   Tiver, Fleur ^d   Willis, Brian ^e   Burnham, Robyn J ^f   Behrensmeyer, Anna K ^a  

^a SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^c YALE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^e CHEVRON ENERGY TECHNOLOGY COMPANY   (United States)

^f UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

Angiosperms; Big cedar ridge; Disturbance; Ferns; Nutrient stress; Paleoecology; USA; Wyoming

Indexed keywords

CRETACEOUS; DICOTYLEDON; DISTURBANCE; ENVIRONMENTAL GRADIENT; FERN; FOSSIL RECORD; GEOLOGICAL TIME; GRAIN SIZE; LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION; LINE TRANSECT; MONOCOTYLEDON; NUTRIENT LIMITATION; ORGANIC MATTER; PALEOBOTANY; PALEOECOLOGY; PALEOENVIRONMENT; PALEOTOPOGRAPHY; PRESERVATION; RECONSTRUCTION; RELATIVE ABUNDANCE; SEDIMENTARY SEQUENCE; SUBSTRATE; SUBTROPICAL REGION; TIMESCALE; VEGETATION HISTORY;

UNITED STATES; WYOMING;

DIPTERIDACEAE; FILICOPHYTA; GLEICHENIACEAE; MAGNOLIOPHYTA; MATONIACEAE; PTERIDOPHYTA; SCHIZAEACEAE;

EID: 84859560836     PISSN: 00129615     EISSN: 15577015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1890/11-0870.1     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Abrahamson, W. G. 2007. Leaf traits and leaf life spans of two xeric-adapted palmettos. American Journal of Botany 94:1297-1308. (Pubitemid 47282117)
2. Amatangelo, K. L., and P. M. Vitousek. 2009. Contrasting predictors of fern versus angiosperm decomposition in a common garden. Biotropica 41:154-161.
3. Amon, J. P., C. A. Thompson, Q. J. Carpenter, and J. Miner. 2002. Temperate zone fens of the glaciated midwestern USA. Wetlands 22:301-317. (Pubitemid 41357447)
4. Andrews, H. N., A. E. Kasper, W. H. Forbes, P. G. Gensel, and W. G. Chaloner. 1977. Early Devonian flora of the Trout Valley Formation of northern Maine. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 23:255-285.
5. Artabe, A. E., L. A. Spalletti, M. Brea, A. Iglesias, E. M. Morel, and D. G. Ganuza. 2007. Structure of a corystosperm fossil forest from the Late Triassic of Argentina. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 243:451-470. (Pubitemid 44940805)
6. Bedford, B. L., M. R. Walbridge, and A. Aldous. 1999. Patterns in nutrient availability and plant diversity of temperate North American wetlands. Ecology 80:2151-2169. (Pubitemid 29485590)
7. Berendse, F., and M. Scheffer. 2009. The angiosperm radiation revisited, an ecological explanation for Darwin's 'abominable mystery'. Ecology Letters 12:865-872.
8. Bloom, S. 1981. Similarity indices in community studies: potential pitfalls. Marine Ecology Progress Series 5:125-128.
9. Bond, W. J. 1989. The tortoise and the hare-ecology of angiosperm dominance and gymnosperm persistence. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 36:227-249.
10. Bond, W. J., and A. C. Scott. 2010. Fire and the spread of flowering plants in the Cretaceous. New Phytologist 188:1137-1150.
11. Bowles, M. L., P. D. Kelsey, and J. L. McBride. 2005. Relationships among environmental factors, vegetation zones, and species richness in a North American calcareous prairie fen. Wetlands 25:685-696. (Pubitemid 44515887)
12. Boyce, C. K., T. J. Brodribb, T. S. Feild, and M. A. Zwieniecki. 2009. Angiosperm leaf vein evolution was physiologically and environmentally transformative. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 276:1771-1776.
13. Bray, J. R., and J. T. Curtis. 1957. An ordination of the upland forest communities of southern Wisconsin. Ecological Monographs 27:325-349.
14. Bridgham, S. D., and C. J. Richardson. 1993. Hydrology and nutrient gradients in North Carolina peatlands. Wetlands 13:207-218.
15. Brodribb, T. J., and T. S. Feild. 2010. Leaf hydraulic evolution led a surge in leaf photosynthetic capacity during early angiosperm diversification. Ecology Letters 13:175-183.
16. Burnham, R. J. 1997. Diversity of tropical forest leaf litter at Pakitsa, Peru. Pages 127-140 in D. E. Wilson and A. Sandoval, editors. Manu: La Biodiversidad del Sureste del Perú. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
17. Burnham, R. J., and R. A. Spicer. 1986. Forest litter preserved by volcanic activity at El Chichón, Mexico: a potentially accurate record of the pre-eruption vegetation. Palaios 1:158-161.
18. Burnham, R., S. L. Wing, and G. G. Parker. 1992. Reflection of deciduous forest communities in leaf litter: implications for autochthonous litter assemblages from the fossil record. Paleobiology 18:30-49.
19. Cantrill, D. J. 1996. Fern thickets from the Cretaceous of Alexander Island, Antarctica containing Alamatus bifarius Douglas and Aculea acicularis sp. nov. Cretaceous Research 17:169-182.
20. Carr, S. C., K. M. Robertson, W. J. Platt, and R. K. Peet. 2009. A model of geographical, environmental and regional variation in vegetation composition of pyrogenic grasslands of Florida. Journal of Biogeography 36:1600-1612.
21. Clarkson, B. R., L. A. Schipper, and A. Lehmann. 2004. Vegetation and peat characteristics in the development of lowland restiad peat bogs, North Island, New Zealand. Wetlands 24:133-151. (Pubitemid 38531003)
22. Cohen, A. L., B. M. P. Singhakumara, and P. M. S. Ashton. 1995. Releasing rain forest succession: a case study in the Dicranopteris linearis fernlands of Sri Lanka. Restoration Ecology 3:261-270. (Pubitemid 3018224)
23. Colwell, R. K. 2009. EstimateS: Statistical estimation of species richness and shared species from samples. Version 8.2. User's guide and application. http://purl.oclc.org/estimates
24. Cox, T., and M. Cox. 2001. Multidimensional scaling. Monographs on Statistics and Applied Probability 88. Chapman and Hall, London, UK.
25. Crabtree, D. R. 1988. Mid-Cretaceous ferns in situ from the Albino member of the Mowry Shale, southwestern Montana. Palaeontographica Abteilung B 209:1-27.
26. Crane, P., and S. Lidgard. 1989. Angiosperm diversification and paleolatitudinal gradients in Cretaceous floristic diversity. Science 246:675-678. (Pubitemid 20411450)
27. Crepet, W. L. 1984. Advanced (constant) insect pollination mechanisms: pattern of evolution and implications vis-a-vis angiosperm diversity. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71:607-630.
28. Crepet, W., K. Nixon, and M. Gandolfo. 2004. Fossil evidence and phylogeny: the age of major angiosperm clades based on mesofossil and macrofossil evidence from Cretaceous deposits. American Journal of Botany 91:1666-1682. (Pubitemid 43193725)
29. Crisp, M. D., M. T. K. Arroyo, L. G. Cook, M. A. Gandolfo, G. J. Jordan, M. S. McGlone, P. H. Weston, M. Westoby, P. Wilf, and H. P. Linder. 2009. Phylogenetic biome conservatism on a global scale. Nature 458:754-756.
30. Cúneo, N. R., E. L. Taylor, T. N. Taylor, and M. Krings. 2003. An in situ fossil forest from the upper Fremouw Formation (Triassic) of Antarctica: paleoenvironmental setting and paleoclimate analysis. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 197:239-261. (Pubitemid 37056803)
31. Davies-Vollum, K. S., and S. L. Wing. 1998. Sedimentological, taphonomic, and climatic aspects of Eocene swamp deposits (Willwood Formation, Bighorn Basin, Wyoming). Palaios 13:28-40.
32. Davis, C. C., C. O. Webb, K. J. Wurdack, C. A. Jaramillo, and M. J. Donoghue. 2005. Explosive radiation of Malpighiales supports a mid-Cretaceous origin of modern tropical rain forests. American Naturalist 165:E36-E65.
33. Deng, S. T., C. D. Wu, X. Gu, and Z. J. Guo. 2008. Sedimentary records and paleoenvironmental significance of stable isotopic evidences from the late Cenozoic, northern Tianshan. Acta Petrologica Sinica 24:689-698.
34. De Steven, D., and M. M. Toner. 2004. Vegetation of upper coastal plain depression wetlands: environmental templates and wetland dynamics within a landscape framework. Wetlands 24:23-42. (Pubitemid 38503027)
35. Dick, D. A., and F. S. Gilliam. 2007. Spatial heterogeneity and dependence of soils and herbaceous plant communities in adjacent seasonal wetland and pasture sites. Wetlands 27:951-963.
36. DiMichele, W. A., and R. A. Gastaldo. 2009. Plant paleoecology in deep time. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 95:144-198. (Pubitemid 351568514)
37. DiMichele, W. A., and W. J. Nelson. 1989. Small-scale spatial heterogeneity in Pennsylvanian-Age vegetation from the roof shale of the Springfield Coal (Illinois Basin). Palaios 4:276-280. (Pubitemid 20408469)
38. DiMichele, W. A., W. J. Nelson, S. Elrjck, and P. R. Ames. 2009. Catastrophically buried middle Pennsylvanian Sigillaria and calamitean sphenopsids from Indiana, USA: What kind of vegetation was this? Palaios 24:159-166.
39. Ellis, B., D. Daly, L. Hickey, K. Johnson, J. Mitchell, P. Wilf, and S. Wing. 2009. Manual of Leaf Architecture. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, USA.
40. Ellis, B., K. R. Johnson, and R. E. Dunn. 2003. Evidence for an in situ early Paleocene rainforest from Castle Rock, Colorado. Rocky Mountain Geology 38:73-100.
41. Eriksson, O. 2008. Evolution of seed size and biotic seed dispersal in angiosperms: paleoecological and neoecological evidence. International Journal of Plant Sciences 169:863-870.
42. Etchberger, R. C., and P. R. Krausman. 1997. Evaluation of five methods for measuring desert vegetation. Wildlife Society Bulletin 25:604-609. (Pubitemid 27515388)
43. Faith, D. P., P. R. Minchin, and L. Belbin. 1987. Compositional dissimilarity as a robust measure of ecological distance. Vegetatio 69:57-68.
44. Falcon-Lang, H. J. 2003. Growth interruptions in silicified conifer woods from the Upper Cretaceous Two Medicine Formation, Montana, USA: implications for palaeoclimate and dinosaur palaeoecology. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 199:299-314. (Pubitemid 37274236)
45. Feild, T. S., N. C. Arens, J. A. Doyle, T. E. Dawson, and M. J. Donoghue. 2004. Dark and disturbed: a new image of early angiosperm ecology. Paleobiology 30:82-107. (Pubitemid 38362811)
46. Feild, T. S., T. J. Brodribb, A. Iglesias, D. S. Chatelet, A. Baresch, G. R. Upchurch, Jr., B. Gomez, B. A. Mohr, C. Coiffard, J. Kvacek, and C. Jaramillo. 2011. Fossil evidence for Cretaceous escalation in angiosperm leaf vein evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 108:8363-8366.
47. Feild, T. S., D. S. Chatelet, and T. J. Brodribb. 2009. Ancestral xerophobia: a hypothesis on the whole plant ecophysiology of early angiosperms. Geobiology 7:237-264.
48. Flinn, K. M., M. J. Lechowicz, and M. J. Waterway. 2008. Plant species diversity and composition of wetlands within an upland forest. American Journal of Botany 95:1216-1224.
49. Floyd, D. A., and J. E. Anderson. 1987. A comparison of three methods for estimating plant cover. Journal of Ecology 75:221-228.
50. Friedman, J., and S. C. H. Barrett. 2009. Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants. Annals of Botany 103:1515-1527.
51. Friis, E. M., K. R. Pedersen, and P. R. Crane. 2006. Cretaceous angiosperm flowers: innovation and evolution in plant reproduction. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 232:251-293. (Pubitemid 43372057)
52. Friis, E. M., K. R. Pedersen, and P. R. Crane. 2010. Diversity in obscurity: fossil flowers and the early history of angiosperms. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365:369-382.
53. Gastaldo, R. A., I. Stevanovic-Walls, W. N. Ware, and S. F. Greb. 2004. Community heterogeneity of Early Pennsylvanian peat mires. Geology 32:693-696. (Pubitemid 39115700)
54. Gemmill, C. E., and K. R. Johnson. 1997. Paleoecology of a late Paleocene (Tiffanian) megaflora from the northern Great Divide Basin, Wyoming. Palaios 12:439-448. (Pubitemid 127629796)
55. George, L. O., and F. A. Bazzaz. 1999. The fern understory as an ecological filter: growth and survival of canopy-tree seedlings. Ecology 80:846-856. (Pubitemid 29188322)
56. Givnish, T. J. 1987. Comparative studies of leaf form: assessing the relative roles of selective pressures and phylogenetic constraints. New Phytologist 106:131-160.
57. Gore, A. J. P., editor. 1983. Mires: swamp, bog, fen, and moor. Volume 4B, Regional Studies. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
58. Gotelli, N. J., and R. K. Colwell. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters 4:379-391. (Pubitemid 32752218)
59. Green, W. A. 2010. Stratigraph: toolkit for the plotting and analysis of stratigraphic and palaeontological data. cran. r-project.org/web/packages/ stratigraph/index.html
60. Greer, G., R. M. Lloyd, and B. C. McCarthy. 1997. Factors influencing the distribution of pterdiophytes in a southeastern Ohio hardwood forest. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 124:11-21. (Pubitemid 27309148)
61. Griffiths, R. P., and T. Filan. 2007. Effects of bracken fern invasions on harvested site soils in Pacific Northwest (USA) coniferous forests. Northwest Science 81:191-198. (Pubitemid 47169672)
62. Harris, T. M. 1981. Burnt ferns from the English Wealden. Proceedings of the Geological Association 92:47-58.
63. Hartigan, J. 1975. Clustering algorithms. Wiley, New York, New York, USA.
64. Hartigan, J., and M. Wong. 1979. Algorithm AS 136: a Kmeans clustering algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series C (Applied Statistics) 28:100-108.
65. Herman, A. B., and J. Kvaček. 2007. Early Campanian Grünbach flora of Austria. Paleontological Journal 41:1068-1076. (Pubitemid 350302274)
66. Hickey, L., and J. Doyle. 1977. Early Cretaceous fossil evidence for angiosperm evolution. Botanical Review 43:2-104.
67. 39Ar isotopic age of the C33r/C33n geomagnetic reversal from the Judith River Formation (Upper Creataceous), Elk Basin, Wyoming, USA. Journal of Geology 103:243-256.
68. Hill, M., and H. Gauch. 1980. Detrended correspondence analysis: an improved ordination technique. Plant Ecology 42:47-58.
69. Hochuli, P. A., U. Heimhofer, and H. Weissert. 2006. Timing of early angiosperm radiation: recalibrating the classical succession. Journal of the Geological Society, London 163:587-594. (Pubitemid 43986141)
70. Hu, S., D. L. Dilcher, D. M. Jarzen, and D. W. Taylor. 2008. Early steps of angiosperm-pollinator coevolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105:240-245.
71. Hughes, N. F. 1994. The enigma of angiosperm origins. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
72. Johnson, K. R., and B. Ellis. 2002. A tropical rainforest in Colorado 1.4 million years after the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Science 296:2379-2383. (Pubitemid 34734209)
73. Karst, J., B. Gilbert, and M. J. Lechowicz. 2005. Fern community assembly: the roles of chance and the environment at local and intermediate scales. Ecology 86:2473-2486. (Pubitemid 41209518)
74. Kessler, M. 2001. Pteridophyte species richness in Andean forests in Bolivia. Biodiversity and Conservation 10:1473-1495. (Pubitemid 32948876)
75. Knight, T. M., J. A. Steets, J. C. Vamosi, S. J. Mazer, M. Burd, D. R. Campbell, M. R. Dudash, M. O. Johnston, R. J. Mitchell, and T.-L. Ashman. 2005. Pollen limitation of plant reproduction: pattern and process. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36:467-497. (Pubitemid 43068867)
76. Kreft, H., W. Jetz, J. Mutke, and W. Barthlott. 2010. Contrasting environmental and regional effects on global pteridophyte and seed plant diversity. Ecography 33:408-419.
77. Kuiper, K. F., A. Deino, F. J. Hilgen, W. Krijgsman, P. R. Renne, and J. R. Wijbrans. 2008. Synchronizing rock clocks of earth history. Science 320:500-504. (Pubitemid 351590657)
78. Lähteenoja, O., K. Ruokolainen, L. Schulman, and J. Alvarez. 2009. Amazonian floodplains harbour minerotrophic and ombrotrophic peatlands. Catena 79:140-145.
79. Laliberte, L., J. O. Luken, J. J. Hutchens, and K. S. Godwin. 2007. The ecological boundaries of six Carolina bays: community composition and ecotone distribution. Wetlands 27:873-883.
80. Lande, R. 1996. Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos 76:5-13.
81. Lidgard, S., and P. Crane. 1988. Quantitative analyses of the early angiosperm radiation. Nature 331:344-346.
82. Lidgard, S., and P. R. Crane. 1990. Angiosperm diversification and Cretaceous floristic trends: a comparison of palynofloras and leaf macrofloras. Paleobiology 16:77-93. (Pubitemid 20416632)
83. Lillegraven, J., and L. Ostresh. 1990. Late Cretaceous (earliest Campanian/Maastrichtian) evolution of western shorelines of the North American Western Interior Seaway in relation to known mammalian faunas. Pages 1-30 in T. M. Bown and K. D. Rose, editors. Dawn of the age of mammals in the northern part of the Rocky Mountain Interior. Geological Society of America Special Paper 243.
84. Lottes, A. L., and A. M. Ziegler. 1994. World peat occurrence and the seasonality of climate and vegetation. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 106:23-37. (Pubitemid 24424902)
85. Loveless, C. M. 1959. A study of the vegetation in the Florida Everglades. Ecology 40:1-9.
86. Lupia, R., S. Lidgard, and P. R. Crane. 1999. Comparing palynological abundance and diversity: implications for biotic replacement during the Cretaceous angiosperm radiation. Paleobiology 25:305-340. (Pubitemid 30042210)
87. Lwanga, J. S., A. Balmford, and R. Badaza. 1998. Assessing fern diversity: relative species richness and its environmental correlates in Uganda. Biodiversity and Conservation 7:1387-1398. (Pubitemid 29107431)
88. Lynch, R. L., H. Chen, L. A. Brandt, and F. J. Mazzotti. 2009. Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum) invasion in hurricane caused treefalls. Natural Areas Journal 29:210-215.
89. Mancera, J. E., G. C. Meche, P. P. Cardona-Olarte, E. Castañeda-Moya, R. L. Chiasson, N. A. Geddes, L. M. Schile, H. G. Wang, G. R. Guntenspergen, and J. B. Grace. 2005. Fine-scale spatial variation in plant species richness and its relationship to environmental conditions in coastal marshlands. Plant Ecology 178:39-50. (Pubitemid 40870317)
90. Marrs, R. H., M. G. Le Duc, R. J. Mitchell, D. Goddard, S. Paterson, and R. J. Pakeman. 2000. The ecology of bracken: its role in succession and implications for control. Annals of Botany 85:3-15.
91. Marrs, R. H., and A. S. Watt. 2006. Biological flora of the British Isles: Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. Journal of Ecology 94:1272-1321. (Pubitemid 44511014)
92. McCune, B., and J. B. Grace. 2002. Analysis of ecological communities. MjM Software Design, Gleneden Beach,Oregon, USA.
93. McGlone, M. S., J. M. Wilmshurst, and H. M. Leach. 2005. An ecological and historical review of bracken (Pteridium esculentum) in New Zealand, and its cultural significance. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29:165-184. (Pubitemid 43025814)
94. Midgley, J. J., and W. J. Bond. 1991. Ecological aspects of the rise of angiosperms - a challenge to the reproductive superiority hypothesis. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 44:81-92. (Pubitemid 23402143)
95. 39Ar geochronologythrough comparison with U-Pb analysis of a 1.1 Ga rhyolite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 64:73-98. (Pubitemid 30166455)
96. Nagalingum, N. S., and D. J. Cantrill. 2006. Early Cretaceous Gleicheniaceae and Matoniaceae (Gleicheniales) from Alexander Island, Antarctica. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 138:73-93. (Pubitemid 43343909)
97. Nagalingum, N. S., A. N. Drinnan, R. Lupia, and S. McLoughlin. 2002. Fern spore diversity and abundance in Australia during the Cretaceous. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 119:69-92. (Pubitemid 34838082)
98. Nekola, J. C. 2004. Vascular plant compositional gradients within and between Iowa fens. Journal of Vegetation Science 15:771-780. (Pubitemid 39623271)
99. Ohl, C., and R. Bussmann. 2004. Recolonisation of natural landslides in tropical mountain forests of Southern Ecuador. Feddes Repertorium 115:248-264. (Pubitemid 39138773)
100. Oksanen, J., R. Kindt, P. Legendre, B. O'Hara, G. L. Simpson, P. Solymos, M. H. H. Stevens, and H. Wagner. 2008. vegan: Community Ecology Package. R package version 1.15-0. http://cran.r-project.org/, http://vegan.r-forge.r- project.org/
101. Oplustil, S., J. Psenicka, M. Libertin, A. R. Bashforth, Z. Simunek, J. Drabkova, and J. Daskova. 2009. A Middle Pennsylvanian (Bolsovian) peat-forming forest preserved in situ in volcanic ash of the Whetstone Horizon in the Radnice Basin, Czech Republic. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 155:234-274.
102. Pastor, J., B. Peckham, S. Bridgham, J. Weltzin, and J. Chen. 2002. Plant community dynamics, nutrient cycling, and alternative stable equilibria in peatlands. American Naturalist 160:553-568. (Pubitemid 35259053)
103. Peirson, J. A., and D. K. Evans. 2008. The vascular flora of Sayres Pond, a remnant prairie fen in Champaign County, Ohio. Rhodora 110:178-209.
104. Pemberton, R. W., and A. P. Ferriter. 1998. Old World climbing fern (Lygodium microphyllum), a dangerous invasive weed in Florida. American Fern Journal 88:165-175. (Pubitemid 128436871)
105. Pfefferkorn, H. W., and W. Jun. 2007. Early Permian coal forming floras preserved as compressions from the Wuda District (Inner Mongolia, China). International Journal of Coal Geology 69:90-102. (Pubitemid 44817449)
106. Philippe, M., et al. 2008. Woody or not woody? Evidence for early angiosperm habit from the Early Cretaceous fossil wood record of Europe. Palaeoworld 17:142-152.
107. Prinzing, A., W. Durka, S. Klotz, and R. Brandl. 2001. The niche of higher plants: evidence for phylogenetic conservatism. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 268:2383-2389. (Pubitemid 33096104)
108. R Development Core Team. 2007. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria.
109. Regal, P. J. 1977. Ecology and evolution of flowering plant dominance. Science 196:622-629.
110. Regal, P. J. 1982. Pollination by wind and animals: ecology of geographic patterns. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 13:497-524.
111. Royer, D. L., I. M. Miller, D. J. Peppe, and L. J. Hickey. 2010. Leaf economic traits from fossils support a weedy habit for early angiosperms. American Journal of Botany 97:438-445.
112. Rushforth, S. R. 1971. A flora from the Dakota Sandstone Formation (Cenomanian) near Westwater, Grand County, Utah. Brigham Young University Science Bulletin Biological Series 14:1-44.
113. Russell, A. E., J. W. Raich, and P. M. Vitousek. 1998. The ecology of the climbing fern Dicranopteris linearis on windward Mauna Loa, Hawaii. Journal of Ecology 86:765-779. (Pubitemid 28485998)
114. Russell, A. E., and P. M. Vitousek. 1997. Decomposition and potential Nitrogen fixation in Dicranopteris linearis litter on Mauna Loa, Hawai'i. Journal of Tropical Ecology 13:579-594.
115. Schalles, J. F., and D. J. Shure. 1989. Hydrology, community structure, and productivity patterns of a dystrophic Carolina bay wetland. Ecological Monographs 59:365-385. (Pubitemid 20401960)
116. Schneider, H., E. Schuettpelz, K. M. Pryer, R. Cranfill, S. Magallón, and R. Lupia. 2004. Ferns diversified in the shadow of angiosperms. Nature 428:553-557. (Pubitemid 38480537)
117. Schuettpelz, E., and K. M. Pryer. 2009. Evidence for a Cenozoic radiation of ferns in an angiosperm-dominated canopy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:11200-11205.
118. Sims, H. J. 2010. Paleolatitudinal gradients in seed size during the Cretaceous-Tertiary radiation of angiosperms. International Journal of Plant Sciences 171:216-220.
119. Skog, J. E., and D. L. Dilcher. 1994. Lower vascular plants of the Dakota Formation in Kansas and Nebraska, USA. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 80:1-18.
120. Slocum, M. G., T. Mitchell Aide, J. K. Zimmerman, and L. Navarro. 2006. A strategy for restoration of montane forest in anthropogenic fern thickets in the Dominican Republic. Restoration Ecology 14:526-536. (Pubitemid 44756365)
121. Sokal, R. R., and F. J. Rohlf. 1995. Biometry: the principles and practice of statistics in biological research. Third edition. W. H. Freeman, New York, New York, USA.
122. Spicer, R. A., R. J. Burnham, P. Grant, and H. Glicken. 1985. Pityrogramma calomelanos, the primary, post-eruption colonizer of Volcán Chichonal, Chiapas, Mexico. American Fern Journal 75:1-5.
123. Spicer, R. A., and C. R. Hill. 1979. Principal components and correspondence analyses of quantitative data from a Jurassic plant bed. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 28:273-299. (Pubitemid 10258198)
124. Stanek, W., J. K. Jeglum, and L. Orloci. 1977. Comparisons of peatland types using macro-nutrient contents of peat. Vegetatio 33:163-173.
125. Svenning, J. C. 2001. On the role of microenvironmental heterogeneity in the ecology and diversification of neotropical rain-forest palms (Arecaceae). Botanical Review 67:1-53.
126. Taylor, D. W., and L. J. Hickey. 1996. Evidence for and implications of an herbaceous origin for angiosperms. Pages 232-266 in D. W. Taylor and L. J. Hickey, editors. Flowering plant origin, evolution and phylogeny. Chapman and Hall, New York, New York, USA.
127. ter Braak, C. J. F. 1986. Canonical Correspondence Analysis: a new eigenvector technique for multivariate direct gradient analysis. Ecology 67: 1167-1179.
128. ter Braak, C. J. F. 1987. The analysis of vegetation-environment relationships by canonical correspondence analysis. Vegetatio 69: 69-77.
129. Tiffney, B. H. 1984. Seed size, dispersal syndromes, and the rise of the angiosperms: evidence and hypothesis. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 71:551-576.
130. Tomlinson, P. B. 1979. Systematics and ecology of the Palmae. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10:85-107.
131. Tuomisto, H., and A. D. Poulsen. 2000. Pteridophyte diversity and species composition in four Amazonian rain forests. Journal of Vegetation Science 11:383-396. (Pubitemid 30466969)
132. Valdes, P. J., B. W. Sellwood, and G. D. Price. 1996. Evaluating concepts of Cretaceous equability. Palaeoclimates 2:139-158.
133. Van Konijnenburg-Van Cittert, J. H. A. 2002. Ecology of some Late Triassic to Early Cretaceous ferns in Eurasia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 119:113-124. (Pubitemid 34838084)
134. Verhoeven, J. T. A. 1986. Nutrient dynamics in mineratrophic peat mires. Aquatic Botany 25:117-137. (Pubitemid 17251192)
135. Vitt, D. H., and W. L. Chee. 1990. The relationships of vegetation to surface water chemistry and peat chemistry in fens of Alberta, Canada. Vegetatio 89:87-106.
136. Walker, L. R. 1994. Effects of fern thickets on woodland development on landslides in Puerto Rico. Journal of Vegetation Science 5:525-532. (Pubitemid 2151535)
137. Walker, L. R., and W. Boneta. 1995. Plant and soil responses to fire on a fern-covered landslide in Puerto Rico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 11:473-479.
138. Wang, H., M. J. Moore, P. S. Soltis, C. D. Bell, S. F. Brockington, R. Alexandre, C. C. Davis, M. Latvis, S. R. Manchester, and D. E. Soltis. 2009. Rosid radiation and the rapid rise of angiosperm-dominated forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:3853-3853.
139. Wilde, S. A., R. B. Corey, J. G. Iyer, and G. K. Voight. 1979. Soil and plant analysis for tree culture. Oxford and IBH Publishing, New Delhi, India.
140. Wilf, P., N. R. Cuneo, K. R. Johnson, J. F. Hicks, S. L. Wing, and J. D. Obradovich. 2003. High plant diversity in Eocene South America: evidence from Patagonia. Science 300:122-125. (Pubitemid 36423042)
141. Williams, C. J., A. H. Johnson, B. A. LePage, D. R. Vann, and T. Sweda. 2003. Reconstruction of Tertiary Metasequoia forests. II. Structure, biomass, and productivity of Eocene floodplain forests in the Canadian Arctic. Paleobiology 29:271-292. (Pubitemid 36777342)
142. Williams, C. J., B. A. LePage, A. H. Johnson, and D. R. Vann. 2009. Structure, biomass, and productivity of a late Paleocene Arctic forest. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 158:107-127.
143. Wing, S. L., and L. D. Boucher. 1998. Ecological aspects of the Cretaceous flowering plant radiation. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 26:379-421. (Pubitemid 28456641)
144. Wing, S. L., and W. A. DiMichele. 1995. Conflict between local and global changes in plant diversity through geological time. Palaios 10:551-564. (Pubitemid 26480237)
145. Wing, S. L., F. Herrera, C. A. Jaramillo, C. Gómez-Navarro, P. Wilf, and C. C. Labandeira. 2009. Late Paleocene fossils from the Cerrejón Formation, Colombia, are the earliest record of Neotropical rainforest. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 106:18627-18632.
146. Wing, S. L., L. J. Hickey, and C. C. Swisher. 1993. Implications of an exceptional fossil flora for Late Cretaceous vegetation. Nature 363:342-344. (Pubitemid 23392973)
147. Wing, S. L., and B. H. Tiffney. 1987. The reciprocal interaction of angiosperm evolution and tetrapod herbivory. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 50:179-210.
148. Wnuk, C., and H. W. Pfefferkorn. 1987. A Pennsylvanian-age terrestrial storm deposit - using plant fossils to characterize the history and process of sediment accumulation. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 57:212-221.
149. Wolfe, J. A., and J. R. Upchurch. 1987. 1987. North American nonmarine climates and vegetation during the Late Cretaceous. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 61:33-77.