An ecological and historical review of bracken (Pteridium esculentum) in New Zealand, and its cultural significance

New Zealand Journal of Ecology

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 165-184

  McGlone, Matt S ^a   Wilmshurst, Janet M ^a   Leach, Helen M ^b  

^a LANDCARE RESEARCH   (New Zealand)

^b UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Bracken; Deforestation; Fire; History; Maori; Palynology; Pteridium esculentum; Settlement

Indexed keywords

DEFORESTATION; FERN; FIRE; HISTORICAL ECOLOGY;

AUSTRALASIA; NEW ZEALAND;

FILICOPHYTA; POACEAE; PTERIDIUM; PTERIDIUM AQUILINUM; PTERIDIUM ESCULENTUM;

EID: 29744443558     PISSN: 01106465     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Al-Jaff, D.M.A.; Cook, G.T.; Stephen, N.H.; Atchison, T.C.; Duncan, H.J. 1982. The effects of glyphosate on frond rhizome regeneration, bud development and storage rhizome starch content in bracken. Annals of Applied Biology 101: 323-329.
2. Alonso-Amelot, M.E.; Avendano, M. 2002. Human carcinogenesis and bracken fern: a review of the evidence. Current Medicinal Chemistry 9: 675-686.
3. Alonso-Amelot, M.E.; Oliveros, A.; Calcagno, M.P.; Arellano, E. 2001. Bracken adaptation mechanisms and xenobiotic chemistry. Pure and Applied Chemistry 73: 549-553.
4. Anderson, A.J. 1991. The chronology of colonisation in New Zealand. Antiquity 65: 767-795.
5. 14C AMS ages of Ranus exulans bone gelatin in south Pacific prehistory. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 30: 243-61.
6. Athens, J.S. 1997. Hawaiian native lowland vegetation in prehistory. In: Kirch, P.V.; Hunt, T.L. (Editors), Historical ecology in the Pacific Islands: Prehistoric environmental and landscape change, pp 248-270. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA.
7. Atkinson, E. 1923. The bracken ferns of New Zealand. The New Zealand Journal of Agriculture 26: 1-10.
8. Atkinson, I.A.E. 2004. Successional processes induced by fires on the northern offshore islands of New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 28: 181-193.
9. Backhouse, J. 1843. A narrative of a visit to the Australian colonies. Hamilton, Adams, London.
10. Bannister, P. 2003. Are frost hardiness ratings useful predictors of frost damage in the field? A test using damage records from the severe frost in South Otago and Southland, New Zealand, July 1996. New Zealand Journal of Botany 41: 555-569.
11. Bannister, P.; Smith, P.J.M. 1983. The heat resistance of some New Zealand plants. Flora 173: 399-414.
12. Bascand, L.D.; Jowett, G.H. 1981. Scrubweed cover of South Island agricultural and pastoral land. New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture 9: 307-327.
13. Best, E. 1925. Maori agriculture. Dominion Museum Bulletin 9. (Reprinted edition 1977, Government Printer, Wellington, N.Z.)
14. Best, E. 1942. Forest lore of the Maori. Dominion Museum Bulletin 14. (Reprinted edition 1977, Government Printer, Wellington, N.Z.)
15. Bidwill, J.C. 1841. Rambles in New Zealand. Orr, England. (Republished 1952, Pegasus Press, Christchurch, N.Z.)
16. Birnie, R.V; Miller, D.R.; Home, P.L.; Leadbeater, S.; MacDonald, A. 2000. The potential distribution and impact of bracken in upland Scotland: an assessment using a GIS-based niche model. Annals of Botany 85 (Supplement B): 53-62.
17. Birrell, K.S.; Pullar, W.A.; Heine, J.C. 1971. Pedological, chemical, and physical properties of organic horizons of paleosols underlying the Tarawera Formation. New Zealand Journal of Science 14: 187-218.
18. Bray, J.R. 1991. Growth, biomass, and productivity of a bracken (Pteridium esculentum) infested pasture in Marlborough Sounds, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 29: 169-176.
19. Brownsey, P.J. 1989. The taxonomy of bracken (Pteridium: Dennstaedtiaceaceae) in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 2: 112-128.
20. Brownsey, P.J.; Smith-Dodsworth, J.C. 1989. New Zealand ferns and allied plants. David Bateman, Auckland.
21. Buchanan, J. 1868. Sketch of the botany of Otago. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute 1: 181-212.
22. Bussell, M.R. 1988. Modern pollen rain, central-western North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 26: 297-315.
23. Byrami, M.; Ogden, J.; Horrocks, M.; Deng, Y.; Shane, P.; Palmer, J. 2002. A palynological study of Polynesian and European effects on vegetation in Coromandel, New Zealand, showing the variability between four records from a single swamp. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 32: 507-531.
24. Cartledge, O.; Carnahan, J.A. 1971. Studies of austral bracken (Pteridium esculentum) in the vicinity of Canberra. New Phytologist 70: 619-626.
25. Chavasse, C.G.R.; Davenhill, N.A. 1973. A review of chemical control of bracken and gorse for forest establishment. In: Hartley M.J. (Editor), Proceedings of the 26th N. Z. Weed & Pest Control Conference, pp. 2-6.
26. Clarke, E.W. 1960. Fern control. New Zealand Journal of Agriculture 101: 449-458.
27. Clarkson, B.D. 1990. A review of vegetation development following recent (<450 years) volcanic disturbance in North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 14: 59-71.
28. Clarkson, B.R.; Patel, R.N.; Clarkson, B.D. 1988. Composition and structure of forest overwhelmed at Pureora, central North Island, New Zealand, during the Taupo eruption (c. AD 130). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 18: 417-436.
29. Cockayne, A.H. 1916. Conversion of fern-land into grass. The New Zealand Journal of Agriculture 12: 421-439.
30. Cockayne, L. 1928. The vegetation of New Zealand. (2nd edition). Engelman, Leipzig.
31. Colenso, W. 1844. Excursion in the Northern Island of New Zealand: in the summer of 1841-42. Launceston Examiner, Launceston, Tasmania.
32. Colenso, W. 1880. On the vegetable food of the ancient New Zealanders before Cook's visit. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute 12: 3-38.
33. Connor, H.E. 1977. The poisonous plants in New Zealand (2nd revised edition). Government Printer, Wellington.
34. Conway, E. 1949. The autecology of the bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn). The germination of the spore, the development of the prothallus and the young sporophyte. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinborough 163: 325-343.
35. Cooper, K.M. 1976. A field survey of mycorrhizas in New Zealand ferns. New Zealand Journal of Botany 14: 169-181.
36. Cowan, H.D.; McGlone, M.S. 1991. Late Holocene displacements and characteristic earthquakes on the Hope River segment of the Hope Fault, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 21: 373-384.
37. Croker, B.H. 1953. Forest regeneration of the western Hutt Hills, Wellington. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 81: 11-21.
38. Crookes, M.E.; Dobbie, H.B. 1963. New Zealand ferns (6th edition). Whitcombe & Tombs, Auckland, N.Z.
39. Dodson, J.R. 1976. Modern pollen spectra from Chatham Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 14: 341-347.
40. Dolling, A.H.U. 1996. Interference of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn) with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst) seedling establishment. Forest Ecology & Management 88: 227-235.
41. Druce, A.P. 1957. Botanical survey of an experimental catchment, Taita, New Zealand. DSIR Bulletin 124, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington, N.Z.
42. Dyer, A.F. 1989. Does bracken spread by spores? In: Thomson, J.A.; Smith R.T. (Editors), Bracken biology and management, pp. 35-42. AIAS Occasional Publication 40, Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Sydney.
43. Eden, D.N.; Page, M.J. 1998. Palaeoclimatic implications of a storm erosion record from late Holocene lake sediments, North Island, New Zealand. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 139: 37-58.
44. Elder, N.L. 1962. Vegetation of the Kaimanawa Ranges. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand (Botany) 2: 1-37.
45. Elliot, M.B. 1999. Modern pollen-vegetation relationships in Northland, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 37: 131-148.
46. Elliot, M.B.; Flenley, J.R.; Sutton, D.G. 1998. A late Holocene pollen record of deforestation and environmental change from the Lake Tauanui catchment, Northland, New Zealand. Journal of Paleolimnology 19: 23-32.
47. Evans, G.R.; Nordmeyer, A.H.; Kelland, C.M. 1990. Biomass and nutrient pools of bracken growing under radiata pine, Nelson, New Zealand. In: Thomson, J.A.; Smith, R.T. (Editors), Bracken biology and management, pp. 187-196. AIAS Occasional Publication 40, Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Sydney.
48. Frankland, J.C. 1976. Decomposition of bracken litter. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 133-143.
49. Gliessman, S.R. 1976. Allelopathy in a broad spectrum of environments as illustrated by bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 95-104.
50. Godley, E.J. 1989. The flora of the Antipodes Island. New Zealand Journal of Botany 27: 531-563.
51. Gott, B. 1982. Ecology of root use by the aborigines of southern Australia. Archaeology in Oceania 17: 59-67.
52. Guthrie-Smith, H.G. 1969: Tutira: The story of a New Zealand sheep station (4th edition). A. H. and A. W. Reed, Wellington, N.Z.
53. Hendrix, S.D. 1980. An evolutionary and ecological perspective of the insect fauna of ferns. The American Naturalist 115: 171-196.
54. Higham, T.F.G. 2004. Problems associated with the AMS dating of small bone samples: the question of the arrival of Polynesian rats to New Zealand. Radiocarbon 46: 207-218.
55. Hodgson, J.M.; Wahlqvist, M.L. 1993. Nutrition and health of Victorian Aborigines (Kooris). Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2: 43-57.
56. Hogg, A.G.; Higham, T.F.G.; Lowe, D.J.; Palmer, J.G.; Reimer, P.J.; Newnham, R.M. 2003. A wiggle-match date for Polynesian settlement of New Zealand. Antiquity 77: 116-125.
57. Holdaway, R.N. 1996. Arrival of rats in New Zealand. Nature 384: 225-226.
58. Holdaway, R.N. 1999. A spatio-temporal model for the invasion of the New Zealand archipelago by the Pacific rat Rattus exulans. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 29: 91-105.
59. Hollinger, D.Y. 1987. Photosynthesis and stomal conductance patterns of two fern species from different forest understoreys. Journal of Ecology 75: 925-935.
60. Horrocks, M. 2004. Polynesian plant subsistence in prehistoric New Zealand: a summary of the microfossil evidence. New Zealand Journal of Botany 42: 321-334.
61. Horrocks, M.; Ogden, J. 1994. Modern pollen spectra and vegetation of Mt Hauhungatahi, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of Biogeography 21: 637-649.
62. Horrocks, M.; Ogden, J. 1998a. The effects of the Taupo Tephra eruption of c. 1718 BP on the vegetation of Mt Hauhungatahi, central North Island, New Zealand. Journal of Biogeography 25: 649-660.
63. Horrocks, M; Ogden, J. 1998b. Fine resolution palynology of Gibsons' Swamp, central North Island, New Zealand since c. 13 000 BP. New Zealand Journal of Botany 36: 273-283.
64. Horsley, S.B. 1977. Allelopathic inhibition of black cherry by fern, grass, goldenrod, and aster. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research 7: 205-216.
65. Hunt, M.A.; Davidson, N.J.; Unwin, G.L.; Close, D.C. 2002. Ecophysiology of the soft tree fern, Dicksonia antarctica (Labill.). Austral Ecology 27: 360-368.
66. Knowles, B. 1970. The autecology of bracken. New Zealand Forest Research Institute Indigenous Silviculture Report 5. New Zealand Forest Service, Rotorua.
67. Large, M.F.; Braggins, J.E. 1991. Spore atlas of New Zealand ferns & fern allies. Supplement to the New Zealand Journal of Botany. SIR Publishing, Wellington.
68. Lawton, J.H. 1976. The structure of the arthropod community on bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 187-216.
69. Lawton, J.H. 1982. Vacant niches and unsaturated communities: a comparison of bracken herbivores at sites on two continents. Journal of Animal Ecology 51: 573-595.
70. Leach, H.M. 1986. A review of culinary and nutritional adaptations involving wild plant foods following Polynesian settlement of New Zealand. In: Ward, G.K. (Editor), Archaeology at ANZAAS Canberra, pp. 133-142. Canberra Archaeological Society, Canberra.
71. Leach, H.M. 2001. European perceptions of the roles of bracken rhizomes (Pteridium esculentum (Forst.f.) Cockayne) in traditional Maori diet. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 22(2000): 31-43.
72. Leach, H.M. 2003. Fern consumption in Aotearoa and its Oceanic precedents. Journal of the Polynesian Society 112: 141-155.
73. Leach, H.M.; Purdue, C. 2003. Identifying fern-root beaters: documentary and statistical aids to recognition. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 23(2001): 129-150.
74. Leathwick, J.; Morgan, F.; Wilson, G.; Rutledge, D.; McLeod, M.; Johnston, K. 2002. Land environments of New Zealand: a technical guide. Ministry for the Environment, Wellington, N.Z.
75. Lees, C.M.; Neall, V.E. 1993. Vegetation response to volcanic eruptions on Egmont Volcano, New Zealand, during the last 1500 years. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 23: 91-127.
76. Levy, E.B. 1923. The grasslands of New Zealand. Series II. The Taranaki back-country. New Zealand Journal of Agriculture 27: 138-156.
77. Licitis, R. 1953. Air-borne pollen and spores sampled at five New Zealand stations, 1951-52. New Zeal and Journal of Science and Technology B, 34: 289-316.
78. Low, V.H.K.; Thomson, J.A. 1990. Cyanogenesis in Australian bracken (Pteridium esculentum); distribution of cyanogenic phenotypes and factors influencing activity of the cyanogenic glucosidase. In: Thomson, J.A.; Smith, R.T. (Editors), Bracken biology and management, pp. 105-111. AIAS Occasional Publication 40, Australian Institute of Agricultural Science, Sydney.
79. Macphail, M.K.; McQueen, D. R. 1983. The value of New Zealand pollen and spores as indicators of Cenozoic vegetation and climates. Tuatara 26: 37-59.
80. Markham, E. 1963. New Zealand or recollections of it. McCormick, E.H. (Editor). Government Printer, Wellington, N.Z,
81. Marrs, R.H. 2000. The ecology of bracken. Annals of Botany 85B: 3-15.
82. McGlone, M.S. 1982. Modern pollen rain, Egmont National Park, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 20: 253-262.
83. McGlone, M.S. 1983a. Holocene pollen diagrams, Lake Rotorua, North Island, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 13: 53-65.
84. McGlone, M.S. 1983b. Polynesian deforestation of New Zealand: a preliminary synthesis. Archaeology in Oceania 18: 11-25.
85. McGlone, M.S. 1989. The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 12 (Supplement): 115-129
86. McGlone, M.S. 2001. The origin of the indigenous grasslands of southeastern South Island in relation to pre-human woody ecosystems. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 25: 1-15.
87. McGlone, M.S. 2002. A Holocene and latest Pleistocene pollen record from Lake Poukawa, Hawkes Bay, New Zealand. Global and Planetary Change 33: 283-299.
88. McGlone, M.S.; Basher, L.R. 1995. The deforestation of the upper Awatere catchment, Inland Kaikoura Range, Marlborough, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 19: 53-66.
89. McGlone, M.S.; Jones, K.L. 2004. The impact of Polynesian settlement on the vegetation of the coastal Bay of Plenty. In: Irwin, G.J. (Editor), Kohika: the archaeology of a late Maori lake village in the Ngati Awa Rohe, Bay of Plenty, New Zealand, pp. 20-44. Auckland University Press, Auckland, N.Z.
90. McGlone, M.S.; Moar, N.T. 1998. Dryland Holocene vegetation history, Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 36: 91-111.
91. McGlone, M.S.; Topping, W.W. 1977. Aranuian (postglacial) pollen diagrams from the Tongariro region, North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 15: 749-760.
92. McGlone, M.S.; Wilmshurst, J.M. 1999a. Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand. Quaternary International 59: 5-16.
93. McGlone, M.S.; Wilmshurst, J.M. 1999b. A Holocene record of climate, vegetation change and peat bog development, east Otago, South Island, New Zealand. Journal of Quaternary Science 14: 239-254.
94. McGlone, M.S.; Wilson, H.D. 1996. Holocene vegetation and climate of Stewart Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 34: 369-388.
95. McGlone, M.S.; Anderson, A.J; Holdaway, R.N. 1994. An ecological approach to the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand. In: Sutton, D.G. (Editor), The origins of the first New Zealanders, pp. 136-163. Auckland University Press, Auckland, N.Z.
96. McGlone, M.S.; Neall, V.E.; Clarkson, B.D. 1988. The effect of recent volcanic events and climatic changes on the vegetation of Mt Egmont (Mt Taranaki), New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 26: 123-144.
97. McGlone, M.S.; Nelson, C.S.; Todd, A.J. 1984. Vegetation history and environmental significance of pre-peat and surficial peat deposits at Ohinewai, lower Waikato lowland. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 14: 233-244.
98. McSaveney, M.J.; Whitehouse, I.E. 1989. Anthropic erosion of mountain land in Canterbury. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 12: 151-163.
99. Meurk, C.D. 1995. Evergreen broadleaved forests of New Zealand and their bioclimatic definition. In: Box, E.O; Peet, R.K.; Masuzawa, T.; Yamada, I.; Fujiwara, K.; Maycock, P.F. (Editors), Vegetation Science in Forestry, pp. 151-197. Kluwer, Dordrecht.
100. Mildenhall, D.C. 1980. New Zealand late Cretaceous and Cenozoic plant biogeography - a contribution. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecolology 31: 197-234.
101. Mitchell, J. 1973. Mobilisation of phosphorus by Pteridium aquilinum. Plant and Soil 38: 89-491.
102. Newnham, R.M. 1992. A 30,000 year pollen, vegetation, and climate record from Otakairangi (Hikurangi), Northland, New Zealand. Journal of Biogeography 19: 541-554.
103. Newnham, R.M.; de Lange, P.J.; Lowe, D.J. 1995. Holocene vegetation, climate and history of a raised bog, northern New Zealand. The Holocene 5: 267-282.
104. Newnham, R.M.; Lowe, D.J.; McGlone, M.S.; Wilmshurst, J.M.; Higham, T.F.G. 1998. The Kaharoa Tephra as a critical datum for earliest human impact in northern New Zealand. Journal of Archaeological Science 25: 533-544.
105. Newsome, P.F.J. 1987. The vegetative cover of New Zealand. Water & Soil Miscellaneous Publication 112, National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, Wellington, N.Z.
106. Nicholls, J.L. 1963. Vulcanicity and indigenous vegetation in the Rotorua District. Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society 10: 58-65.
107. Norton, H.H. 1979. Evidence for bracken fern as a food for aboriginal peoples of western Washington. Economic Botany 33: 384-396.
108. O'Brien, T.P. 1963. The morphology and growth of Pteridium aquilinum var. esculentum (Forst.) Kuhn. Annals of Botany, N.S. 27: 252-267.
109. Ogden, J.; Basher, L.; McGlone, M.S. 1998. Fire, forest regeneration and links with early human habitation: evidence from New Zealand. Annals of Botany 81: 687-696.
110. Ogden, J.; Deng, Y.; Boswijk, G.; Sandiford, A. 2003. Vegetation changes since early Maori fires in Waipoua Forest, Northern New Zealand. Journal of Archaeological Science 30: 753-767.
111. Page, C.N. 1976. The taxonomy and phytogeography of bracken - a review. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 1-34.
112. Partridge, T.R. 1990 (unpublished). The role of bracken in succession. Investigation No S3020/421. Botany Division DSIR Report for New Zealand Department of Conservation.
113. Partridge, T.R. 1992. Successional interactions between bracken and broom on the Port Hills, Canterbury, New Zealand. Journal of Applied Ecology 29: 85-91
114. Pearce, A.J.; Rowe, L.K. 1979. Forest management effects on interception, evaporation, and water yield. Journal of Hydrology, New Zealand 18: 73-87.
115. Penny, D.; Murray-McIntosh, R.; Harrison, G.L. 2002. Estimating the number of females in the founding population of New Zealand; analysis of mtDNA variation. Journal of the Polynesian Society 111: 207-221.
116. Pitman, J.I. 1989. Rainfall interception by bracken in open habitats: relation between leaf area, canopy storage and drainage rate. Journal of Hydrology 105: 317-334.
117. Pocknall, D.T. 1982. Modern pollen spectra from mountain localities, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 20: 361-371.
118. Rasmussen, L.H.; Lauren, D.R.; Smith, B.L.; Hansen, H.C.B. (in press). Variation in ptaquiloside content in bracken (Pteridium esculentum (Forst. F.) Cockayne) in New Zealand. Journal of Chemical Ecology.
119. Rogers, G.M. 1994. North Island seral tussock grasslands 1. Origins and land-use history. New Zealand Journal of Botany 32: 271-286.
120. Rymer, L. 1976. The history and ethnobotany of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 151-176.
121. Salas, M.R. 1983. Long-distance pollen transport over the southern Tasman Sea: evidence from Macquarie Island. New Zealand Journal of Botany 21: 285-292.
122. Sheffield, E.; Wolf, P.G.; Haufler, C.H. 1989. How big is a bracken plant? Weed Research 29: 455-460.
123. Shortland, E. 1851. The southern districts of New Zealand. Longman, Brown, Green & Longmans, London.
124. Shuter, E.; Westoby, M. 1992. Herbivorous arthropods on bracken (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Khun) in Australia compared with elsewhere. Australian Journal of Ecology 17: 329-339.
125. Smith R.T. 1986. Opportunistic behaviour of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum L. Kuhn) in moorland habitats: origins and constraints. In: Smith, R.T.; Taylor, J.A. (Editors), Bracken: ecology, land use and control technology, 1985. July 1- July 5, pp. 215-224. The Parthenon Publishing Group, Leeds, UK.
126. Sparrman, A. 1953. A voyage round the world with Captain James Cook in H.M.S. Resolution. Robert Hale, London.
127. Sutton, D.G. 1987. A paradigmatic shift in Polynesian prehistory: implications for New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Archaeology 9: 135-155.
128. Swales, A.; Williamson, R.B.; Van Dam, L.F.; Stroud, M.J.; McGlone, M.S. 2002. Reconstruction of urban stormwater contamination of an estuary using catchment history and sediment profile dating. Estuaries 25: 43-56.
129. Sykes, W.R. 1977. Kermadec Islands Flora: an annotated check list. DSIR Bulletin 219, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington, N.Z.
130. Taylor, J.E.; Thomson, J.A. 1998. Bracken litter as mulch - glasshouse evaluation of phototoxicity. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 38: 161-169.
131. Thomson, A.S. 1859. The story of New Zealand: past and present - savage and civilized. Vol. I. John Murray, London.
132. Thomson, J.A. 2000. Morphological and genomic diversity in the genus Pteridium (Dennstaedtiaceae). Annals of Botany 85 (Supplement B): 77-99.
133. Tyron, R.M. 1941. A revision of the genus Pteridium. Rhodora 43: 1-31.
134. Wade, W.R. 1842. A journey in the northern island of New Zealand. George Rolwegan, Hobart Town.
135. Walsh, P. 1896. On the disappearance of the New Zealand bush. Transactions of the New Zealand Institute 29: 490-496.
136. Wardle, J. 1984. The New Zealand beeches: ecology, utilisation and management. New Zealand Forest Service, Wellington, N.Z.
137. Wardle, P. 1991. Vegetation of New Zealand. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
138. Wasmuth, A.G. 1973. The control of bracken with asulam. In: Hartley M.J. (Editor), Proceedings of the 26th New Zealand Weed and Pest Conference, pp. 7-12. The New Zealand Weed and Pest Control Society, Hamilton, N.Z.
139. Watt, A.S. 1955. Bracken versus heather, a study in plant ecology. Journal of Ecology 43: 490-506.
140. Watt, A.S. 1976. The ecological status of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 217-239.
141. Weintraub, J.D.; Scoble, M.J. 2004. Lithinini (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Geometridae; Ennominae). Fauna of New Zealand 49, Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, N.Z.
142. Whitehead, D.; Walcroft, A.S.; Scott, N.A.; Townsend, J.A.; Trotter, C.M.; Rogers, G.D. 2004. Characteristics of photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in the shrubland species mānuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and kānuka (Kunzea ericoides) for the estimation of annual canopy carbon uptake. Tree Physiology 24: 795-804.
143. Williams, G.H.; Foley, A. 1976. Seasonal variations in the carbohydrate content of bracken. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 73: 87-93.
144. Williams, P.A. 1983. Secondary vegetation succession on the Port Hills, Banks Peninsula, Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 21: 237-247.
145. Wilmshurst, J.M. 1997. The impact of human settlement on vegetation and soil stability in Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 35: 97-111.
146. Wilmshurst, J.M.; Higham, T.F.G. 2004. Using rat gnawed seeds to independently date the arrival of rats and humans to New Zealand. The Holocene 14: 801-806.
147. Wilmshurst, J.M.; Eden, D.N.; Froggatt, P.C. 1999. Late Holocene forest disturbance in Gisborne, New Zealand: a comparison of terrestrial and marine records. New Zealand Journal of Botany 37: 523-540.
148. Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, M.S. 1996. Forest disturbance in the central North Island, New Zealand, following the 1850 BP Taupo eruption. The Holocene 6: 399-411.
149. Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, M.S. (2005 a). Origin of pollen and spores in surface lake sediments: comparison of modern palynomorph assemblages in moss cushions, surface soils and surface lake sediments. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 136: 1-15.
150. Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, M.S. (2005 b). Corroded pollen and spores as indicators of changing lake sediment sources and catchment disturbance. Journal of Paleolimnology 34: 503-517.
151. Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, M.S.; Partridge, T.R. 1997. A late Holocene history of natural disturbance in lowland podocarp/hardwood forest, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Botany 35: 79-96.
152. Wilmshurst, J.M.; McGlone, M.S.; Charman, D.J. 2002. Holocene vegetation and climate change in southern New Zealand: linkages between forest composition and quantitative surface moisture reconstructions from an ombrogenous bog. Journal of Quaternary Science 17: 653-666.
153. Wilmshurst, J.M.; Higham, T.F.G.; Allen, H.; Johns, D.; Phillips, C. 2004. Early Maori settlement impacts in northern coastal Taranaki, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 28: 167-179.
154. Wilson, C.J.N.; Walker, G.P.L. 1985. The Taupo eruption, New Zealand. I. General aspects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A, 314: 199-228.
155. Wilson, D.; Donaldson, L.J.; Sepai, O. 1998. Should we be frightened of bracken? A review of the evidence. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 52: 812-817.
156. Wilson, H.D. 1994. Regeneration of native forest on Hinewai Reserve, Banks Peninsula. New Zealand Journal of Botany 32: 373-383.
157. Winterbourn, M.J. 1987. The arthropod fauna of bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) on the Port Hills, South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Entomologist 10: 99-104.
158. Yate, W. 1835. An account of New Zealand (2nd edition) R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, London.