Cushing syndrome: Maybe not so uncommon of an endocrine disease

Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 199-208

  Guaraldi, Federica ^a,b   Salvatori, Roberto ^a  

^a JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TURIN   (Italy)

Author keywords

Computer Assisted diagnosis; Cortisol; Cushing syndrome; Diagnosis; Metabolic

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN; GLUCOCORTICOID; KETOCONAZOLE; METYRAPONE; MIFEPRISTONE; PASIREOTIDE;

ADRENAL CORTEX TUMOR; CLINICAL FEATURE; CUSHING SYNDROME; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; GENERAL PRACTITIONER; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPOPHYSIS ADENOMA; INCIDENCE; OBESITY; OSTEOPOROSIS; PREVALENCE; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY;

ADRENAL GLAND NEOPLASMS; COMORBIDITY; CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES; CUSHING SYNDROME; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; MASS SCREENING; MIDDLE AGED;

EID: 84859312510     PISSN: 15572625     EISSN: 15587118     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3122/jabfm.2012.02.110227     Document Type: Review

References (45)

1. Arnaldi G, Angeli A, Atkinson AB, et al. Diagnosis and complications of Cushing syndrome: a consensus statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:5593-602. (Pubitemid 38033020)
2. Reincke M. Subclinical Cushing syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2000;29:43-56.
3. Kloos RT, Gross MD, Francis IR, Korobkin M, Shapiro B. Incidentally discovered adrenal masses. Endocr Rev 1995;16:460-84.
4. National Institutes of Health, Office of Rare Diseases Research. Rare Diseases and Related Terms. http://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/RareDiseaseList. aspx?PageID=1. Accessed January 25, 2012.
5. Ambrosi B, Faglia G; Multicenter Pituitary Tumor Study Group. Epidemiology of pituitary tumors. In: Faglia G, Beck-Peccoz P, Ambrosi B, Travaglini P, Spada A (eds.). Pituitary Adenomas: New Trends in Basic and Clinical Research. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica; 1991:159-68.
6. Etxabe J, Vazquez JA. Morbidity and mortality in Cushing disease: an epidemiological approach. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1994;40:479-84. (Pubitemid 24194645)
7. Lindholm J, Juul S, Jorgensen JO, et al. Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing syndrome: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:117-23. (Pubitemid 32111743)
8. Anderson GH Jr, Blakeman N, Streeten DH. The effect of age on prevalence of secondary forms of hypertension in 4429 consecutively referred patients. J Hypertens 1994;12:609-15. (Pubitemid 24192887)
9. Catargi B, Rigalleau V, Poussin A, et al. Occult Cushing syndrome in type-2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:5808-13. (Pubitemid 38033055)
10. Chiodini I, Torlontano M, Scillitani A, et al. Association of subclinical hypercortisolism with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a case - control study in hospitalized patients. Eur J Endocrinol 2005;153:837-44. (Pubitemid 43020234)
11. Chiodini I, Mascia ML, Muscarella S, et al. Subclinical hypercortisolism among outpatients referred for osteoporosis. Ann Intern Med 2007;147:541-8. (Pubitemid 351664501)
12. Omura M, Saito J, Yamaguchi K, Kakuta Y, Nishikawa T. Prospective study on the prevalence of secondary hypertension among hypertensive patients visiting a general outpatient clinic in Japan. Hypertens Res 2004;27:193-202. (Pubitemid 38489081)
13. Tabarin A, Perez P. Pros and cons of screening for occult Cushing syndrome. Nat Rev Endocrinol 2011;7:445-55.
14. Nieman LK, Biller BM, Findling JW, et al. The diagnosis of Cushing syndrome: an Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:1526-40. (Pubitemid 351656485)
15. Hamrahian AH, Ioachimescu AG, Remer EM, et al. Clinical utility of noncontrast computed tomography attenuation value (hounsfield units) to differentiate adrenal adenomas/hyperplasias from nonadenomas: Cleveland Clinic experience. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:871-7. (Pubitemid 40279211)
16. Grumbach MM, Biller BM, Braunstein GD, et al. Management of the clinically inapparent adrenal mass ("incidentaloma"). Ann Intern Med 2003;138:424-9. (Pubitemid 36262654)
17. Yanovski JA, Cutler GB Jr. Glucocorticoid action and the clinical features of Cushing syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1994;23:487-509. (Pubitemid 24300122)
18. Chan KC, Lit LC, Law EL, et al. Diminished urinary free cortisol excretion in patients with moderate and severe renal impairment. Clin Chem 2004;50:757-9. (Pubitemid 38429343)
19. Mericq MV, Cutler GB Jr. High fluid intake increases urine free cortisol excretion in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:682-4. (Pubitemid 28496557)
20. Newell-Price J, Bertagna X, Grossman AB, Nieman LK. Cushing syndrome. Lancet 2006;367:1605-17.
21. Garde AH, Hansem AM. Long-term stability of salivary cortisol Scan J Clin Lab Invest 2005;65(5):433-6.
22. Badrick E, Kirschbaum C, Kumari M. The relationship between smoking status and cortisol secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:819-24. (Pubitemid 46465649)
23. Papanicolaou DA, Mullen N, Kyrou I, Nieman LK. Nighttime salivary cortisol: a useful test for the diagnosis of Cushing syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:4515-21. (Pubitemid 35247034)
24. Baid SK, Sinaii N, Wade M, Rubino D, Nieman LK. Radioimmunoassay and tandem mass spectrometry measurement of bedtime salivary cortisol levels: a comparison of assays to establish hypercortisolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007;92:3102-7. (Pubitemid 47236377)
25. Wood PJ, Barth JH, Freedman DB, Perry L, Sheridan B. Evidence for the low dose dexamethasone suppression test to screen for Cushing syndrome: recommendations for a protocol for biochemistry laboratories. Ann Clin Biochem 1997;34:222-9. (Pubitemid 27236924)
26. Putignano P, Kaltsas GA, Satta MA, Grossman AB. The effects of anti-convulsant drugs on adrenal function. Horm Metab Res 1998;30:389-97. (Pubitemid 28308016)
27. Nickelsen T, Lissner W, Schöffling K. The dexamethasone suppression test and long-term contraceptive treatment: measurement of ACTH or salivary cortisol does not improve the reliability of the test. Exp Clin Endocrinol 1989;94:275-80. (Pubitemid 20072269)
28. Elamin MB, Murad MH, Mullan R, et al. Accuracy of diagnostic tests for Cushing syndrome: a systematic review and metaanalyses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:1553-62. (Pubitemid 351656487)
29. Mantero F, Terzolo M, Arnaldi G, et al. A survey on adrenal incidentaloma in Italy. Study Group on Adrenal Tumors of the Italian Society of Endocrinology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:637-44.
30. Ezzat S, Asa SL, Couldwell WT, et al. The prevalence of pituitary adenomas: a systematic review. Cancer 2004;101:613-9.
31. Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Wesley R, Chrousos GP, Loriaux DL, Cutler GB Jr. A simplified morning ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test for the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993;77:1308-12. (Pubitemid 23345487)
32. Reimondo G, Paccotti P, Minetto M, et al. The corticotrophin-releasing hormone test is the most reliable noninvasive method to differentiate pituitary from ectopic ACTH secretion in Cushing syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;58:718-24. (Pubitemid 36702731)
33. Lindsay JR, Nieman LK. Differential diagnosis and imaging in Cushing syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2005;34:403-21. (Pubitemid 40602729)
34. Oldfield EH, Doppman JL, Nieman LK, et al. Petrosal sinus sampling with and without corticotropin-releasing hormone for the differential diagnosis of Cushing syndrome. N Engl J Med 1991;325:897-905.
35. Biller BM, Grossman AB, Stewart PM, et al. Treatment of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing syndrome: a consensus statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:2454-62. (Pubitemid 352008503)
36. Guerrieri M, Campagnacci R, Patrizi A, Romiti C, Arnaldi G, Boscaro M. Primary adrenal hypercortisolism: minimally invasive surgical treatment or medical therapy? A retrospective study with long term follow-up evaluation. Surg Endosc 2010;24:2542-6.
37. Toniato A, Merante-Boschin I, Opocher G, Pelizzo MR, Schiavi F, Ballotta E. Surgical versus conservative management for subclinical Cushing syndrome in adrenal incidentalomas: a prospective randomized study. Ann Surg 2009;249:388-91.
38. Chiodini I, Morelli V, Salcuni AS, et al. Beneficial metabolic effects of prompt surgical treatment in patients with an adrenal incidentaloma causing biochemical hypercortisolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;95:2736-45.
39. Iacobone M, Albiger N, Scaroni C, et al. The role of unilateral adrenalectomy in ACTH-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (AIMAH). World J Surg 2008;32:882-9.
40. Mazzuco TL, Bourdeau I, Lacroix A. Adrenal incidentalomas and subclinical Cushing syndrome: diagnosis and treatment. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2009;16:203-10.
41. Hammer GD, Tyrrell JB, Lamborn KR, et al. Transsphenoidal microsurgery for Cushing disease: initial outcome and long-term results. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:6348-57. (Pubitemid 39628458)
42. Rees DA, Hanna FW, Davies JS, Mills RG, Vafidis J, Scanlon MF. Long-term follow-up results of transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing disease in a single centre using strict criteria for remission. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2002;56:541-51. (Pubitemid 34429630)
43. Fleseriu M, Biller BM, Findling J, et al. Mifepristone, a glucocorticoid receptor antagonist, produces clinical and metabolic benefits in patients with refractory cushing syndrome: results from the Study of the Efficacy and Safety of Mifepristone in the Treatment of Endogenous Cushing Syndrome (SEISMIC). Endocr Rev 2011;32:OR09-5.
44. Petrossians P, Thonnard A-S, Beckers A. Medical treatment in Cushing syndrome: dopamine agonists and cabergoline. Neuroendocrinology 2010;92(Suppl 1):116-9.
45. Colao A, Petersenn S, Newell-Price J, et al. Pasireotide (SOM230) demonstrates efficacy in patients with Cushing disease: results from a large, randomized-dose, double-blind, Phase III Study. Endocr Rev 2011;32:abst OR09-6.