Gender and the Heart. Sex-Specific Differences in the Normal Myocardial Anatomy and Physiology

Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 151-161

  Legato, Marianne J ^a,b   Leghe, Jaswinder K ^c  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c NEW YORK UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84858374565     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374271-1.00014-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (111)

1. Tobin JN, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Wexler JP, et al. Sex bias in considering coronary bypass surgery. Ann Intern Med 1987, 107:19-25.
2. Steingart RM, Packer M, Hamm P, et al. Sex differences in the management of coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 1991, 325:226-230.
3. Legato MJ, Colman C The Female Heart: The Truth About Women and Coronary Artery Disease 1991, Prentice Hall, New York, NY, 252.
4. Fisher LD, Kennedy JW, Davis KB, et al. Association of sex, physical size and operative mortality after coronary artery bypass in the Coronary Artery Surgery Study (CASS). J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1982, 84:334-341.
5. Kent KM, Kelsey SF, James M, et al. Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty in women: 1985-1986 National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute-PTCA Registry. Cardiovascular Health and Disease in Women 1993, 115. Le Jacq Communications, Greenwich, CT, (ch. 19). N.K. Wenger, L. Speroff, B. Packard (Eds.).
6. Kucher N, Lipp E, Schwerzmann M, et al. Gender differences in coronary artery size per 100g of left ventricular mass in a population without cardiac disease. Swiss Med Wkly 2001, 131:610-615.
7. Roberts CS, Roberts WC Cross-sectional area of the proximal portion of the three major epicardial coronary arteries in 98 necropsy patients with different coronary events: relationship to heart weight, age and sex. Circulation 1980, 62:953-959.
8. Dodge JT, Brown BG, Bolson EL, et al. Lumen diameter of normal human coronary arteries: influences of age, sex, anatomic variation and left ventricular hypertrophy or dilatation. Circulation 1992, 86:232-246.
9. O'Connor NJ, Morton JR, Birkmeyer JD, et al. Effect of coronary artery diameter in patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery. Northern New England Cardiovascular Disease Study Group. Circulation 1996, 93(4):652-655.
10. + channels. Circulation Res 1996, 79:1024-1030.
11. Hoff JA, Chomka EV, Krainik AJ, et al. Age and gender distributions of coronary artery calcium detected by electron beam tomography in 35,246 adults. Am J Cardiol 2001, 87(12):1335-1339.
12. Dubey RK, Oparil S, Imthum B, Jackson EK. Sex hormones and hypertension. Cardiovasc Res 53:688-708.
13. Sader KMA, Celermajer DS Endothelial function, vascular reactivity and gender differences in the cardiovascular system. Cardiovasc Res 2002, 53:597-604.
14. Reckelhoff JR Gender differences in the regulation of blood pressure. Hypertension 2001, 37:1199-1208.
15. Mendelsohn ME, Rosano GMC. Hormonal regulation of normal vascular tone in males. Circ Res 93:1142-5.
16. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, et al. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med 1990, 322:1561-1566.
17. DeSimone G, Devereux RB, Daniels SR, et al. Gender differences in left ventricular growth. Hypertension 1995, 26:979-983.
18. Koenig H, Goldstone A, Lu CY Testosterone-mediated sexual dimorphism of the rodent heart. Ventricular lysosomes, mitochondria and cell growth as modulated by androgens. Circ Res 1982, 50:782-787.
19. Zak R Development and proliferative capacity of cardiac muscle cells. Circ Res 1974, 35:17-26.
20. Anversa P, Leri A, Kajstura J, et al. Myocyte growth and cardiac repair. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2002, 34(2):91-105.
21. Schaible TF, Malhotra A, Ciambrone G, et al. The effects of gonadectomy on left ventricular function and cardiac contractile proteins in male and female rats. Circ Res 1984, 54:38-49.
22. Wolinsky H Effects of hypertension and its reversal on the thoracic aorta of male and female rats. Circ Res 1971, 28:622-637.
23. Rosenkranz-Weiss P, Tomek RJ, Mathew J, et al. Gender-specific differences in expression of mRNA's for functional and structural proteins in rat ventricular myocardium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1994, 26:261-270.
24. McGill HC, Sheridan PJ Nuclear uptake of sex steroid hormones in the cardiovascular system of the baboon. Circ Res 1981, 48:238-244.
25. Yang X, Schadt EE, Want S, et al. Tissue-specific expression and regulation of sexually dimorphic genes in mice. Genome Res 2006, 995-1003.
26. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, et al. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N Engl J Med 1990, 322:15611-15616.
27. Capasso JM, Remily RM, Smith RH, et al. Sex differences in myocardial contractility in the rat. Basic Res Cardiol 1983, 78(2):156-171.
28. +. Eur J Pharmacol 1998, 361(1):73-77.
29. Mallat Z, Fornes P, Costagliola R, et al. Age and gender effects on cardiomyocyte apoptosis in the normal human heart. J Gerontol Med Sci 2001, 56a(11):m719-m723.
30. Olivett G, Giordano G, Corradi D Gender differences and aging: effects on the human heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995, 26(4):1068-1079.
31. Olivetti G, Giordano G, Corradi D. Gender differences and aging effects on the human heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 26:1067-79.
32. DeSimone G, Devereux RB, Roman MJ, et al. Gender differences in left ventricular anatomy, blood viscosity and volume regulatory hormones in normal adults. Am J Cardiol 1991, 68(17):1704-1708.
33. Salton CJ, Chuang ML, O'Donnell CJ, et al. Gender differences and normal left ventricular anatomy in an adult population free of hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002, 39:1055-1060.
34. Gardin JM, Siscovick D, Anton-Culver H, et al. Sex, age and disease affect echocardiographic left ventricular mass and systolic function in the free-living elderly. The Cardiovascular Health Study. Circulation 1995, 91(6):1739-1748.
35. Guerra S, Leri A, Wang X, et al. Myocyte death in the failing human heart is gender dependent. Circ Res 1999, 85(9):856-866.
36. Luchner A, Brockel U, Muscholl M Gender-specific differences of cardiac remodeling in subjects with left ventricular dysfunction: a population-based study. Cardiovasc Res 2002, 53:720-727.
37. Ramierez OC, Jimenez E Sex differences in rat heart: different patterns of catalytically active creatine kinase isoenzymes. Arch Inst Cardiol Mex 2000, 70(5):438-447.
38. Knowlton AA, Sun L Heat-shock factor-1, steroid hormones and regulation of heart-shock protein expression in the heart. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2001, 280(1):H455-H464.
39. Camper-Kirby D, Welch S, Walter A, et al. Myocardial Akt activation and gender: increased nuclear activity in females versus males. Circ Res 2001, 88:1020-1027.
40. Kandel ES, Hay N The regulation and activities of the multifunctional serine/threonine kinase Akt/PKB. Exp Cell Res 1999, 253(1):210-229.
41. Matusi T, Li L, delMonte F, et al. Adenoviral gene transfer of activated phosphatidylinositol 3′kinase and Akt inhibits apoptosis of hypoxic cardiomyocytes in vitro. Circulation 1999, 1000:2373-2379.
42. Fujio Y, Nguyen T, Wencker D, et al. Akt promotes survival of cardiomyocytes in vitro and protects against ischemia-reperfusion injury in mouse heart. Circ Res 2000, 101:660-667.
43. Sugden PH, Clerk A Akt like a woman. Gender differences in susceptibility to cardiovascular disease. Circ Res 2001, 88:975-977.
44. Mahmoodzadeh S, Eder S, Nordmeyer J, et al. Estrogen receptor alpha up-regulation and redistribution in human heart failure. FASEB J 20:926-34.
45. Dixon IMC, Brobic V Gender dependency in the pathogenesis of cardiac hypertrophy. Effect of norepinephrine on transforming growth factor-beta release in female heart. Hypertension 2004, 44:1-2.
46. Brower GL, Gardner JD, Janicki JS Gender mediated cardiac protection from adverse ventricular remodeling is abolished by ovariectomy. Mol Cell Biochem 2003, 251:89-95.
47. 2-handling in failing human myocardium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2001, 33:1345-1353.
48. Haghighi K, Schmidt AG, Hoit BD Superinhibition of sarcoplasmic reticulum function by phospholamban induces cardiac contractile failure. J Biol Chem 2001, 276(26):24145-24151.
49. Marelli D, Desrosiers C, El-Alfy M, et al. Cell transplantation for myocardial repair: an experimental approach. Cell Transplant 1992, 1:383-390.
50. Anversa P, Nadal-Ginard B Myocyte renewal and ventricular remodelling. Nature 2002, 415(6868):240-243.
51. Murry CE, Field LJ, Measche P Cell-based cardiac repair. Reflections at the 10-year point. Circulation 2005, 112:3174-3183.
52. Macia E, Boyden PA Stem cell therapy is proarrhythmic. Circulation 2009, 119:1814-1823.
53. Bergmann O, Bhardwaj RD, Bernard S, et al. Evidence for cardiomyocyte renewal in humans. Science 2009, 324:98-101. April 3.
54. Kannel WB, Doyle JT, Ostfeld AM, et al. Optimal resources for primary prevention of atherosclerotic diseases: Atherosclerosis Study Group. Circulation 1984, 70:155A-205A.
55. Garavaglia GE, Messerli FH, Schmieder RE, et al. Sex differences in cardiac adaptation to essential hypertension. Eur Heart J 1989, 10:1110-1114.
56. Hinderliter AL, Light KC, Willis PW Gender differences in left ventricular structure and function in young adults with normal or marginally elevated blood pressure. Am J Hypertens 1992, 5:32-36.
57. Liao Y, Cooper RS, Mensah GA, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy has a greater impact on survival in women than in men. Circulation 1995, 92(4):805-810.
58. Bella JN, Palmieri V, Kitzman DW, et al. Gender difference in diastolic function in hypertension (the HyperGEN study). Am J Cardiol 2002, 89(9):1052-1056.
59. Weinberg EO, Thienelt CD, Katz SE Gender differences in molecular remodeling in pressure overload hypertrophy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999, 34(1):264-273.
60. Nordmeyer J, Eder S, Mahmoodzadeh S, et al. Upregulation of myocardial estrogen receptors in human aortic stenosis. Circulation 2004, 110:3270-3275.
61. Griffin M, Lee HW, Zhao L Gender-related differences in proliferative response of cardiac fibroblasts to hypoxia: effects of estrogen. Mol Cell Biochem 2000, 215(1-2):21-30.
62. Krumholz HM, Larson M, Levy D Sex differences in cardiac adaptation to isolated systolic hypertension. Am J Cardiol 1993, 72(3):310-313.
63. Gerdts E, Zabalgiotia M, Bjornstad H, et al. Gender differences in systolic left ventricular function in hypertensive patients with electrocardiographic left ventricular hypertrophy (the LIFE study). Am J Cardiol 2001, 87(8):980-983.
64. Carroll JD, Carroll EP, Feldman T, et al. Sex-associated differences in left ventricular function in aortic stenosis of the elderly. Circulation 1992, 86:1099-1107.
65. Wagner JA, Horvath SM Cardiovascular reactions to cold exposure differ with age and gender. J Appl Physiol 1985, 58:187-192.
66. Hanley PC, Zinsmeister AR, Clemens IP, et al. Gender related differences in cardiac response to supine exercise assessed by radionuclide angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 1989, 13:624-629.
67. Malhotra A, Buttrick P, Scheuer J Effects of sex hormones on development of physiological and pathological cardiac hypertrophy in male and female rats. Am J Physiol 1990, 259(3 Pt 2):H866-H871.
68. Gesuterfer-Lowrance AAT, Christe M, Conner DA, et al. A mouse model of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Science 1996, 272:731-734.
69. Douglas PS, Katz SE, Weinberg EO, et al. Hypertrophic remodeling: gender differences in the early response to LV pressure overload. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998, 32:1118-1125.
70. Cavasin MA, Sankey SS, Yu AL, et al. Estrogen and testosterone have opposing effects of chronic cardiac remodeling and function in mice. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2003, 284:H1560-H1569.
71. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH The protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 1999, 340:1801-1811.
72. Krasinski K, Spyridopoulos I, Asahara T, et al. Estradiol accelerates functional endothelial recovery after arterial injury. Circulation 1997, 95:1768-1772.
73. Spyridopoulos I, Sullivan AB, Kearney M, et al. Estrogen-receptor-mediated inhibition of human endothelial cell apoptosis: estradiol as a survival factor. Circulation 1997, 95:1505-1514.
74. Kolodgie FD, Jacob A, Wilson PS, et al. Estradiol attenuates directed migration of vascular smooth muscle cells in vitro. Am J Pathol 1996, 148:969-976.
75. Bhalla RC, Toth KF, Bhatty RA, et al. Estrogen reduces proliferation and agonist-induced calcium increase in coronary artery smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol 1997, 272:H1996-H2003.
76. Karas RH, Patterson BL, Mendelsohn ME Human vascular smooth muscle cells contain functional estrogen receptor. Circulation 1994, 89:1943-1950.
77. Venkov CD, Rankin AB, Vaughan DE Identification of authentic estrogen receptor in cultured endothelial cells: a potential mechanism for steroid hormone regulation of endothelial function. Circulation 1996, 94:727-733.
78. Spyridopoulos I, Sullivan AB, Kearney M, et al. Estrogen-receptor-mediated inhibition of human endothelial cell apoptosis: estradiol as a survival factor. Circulation 1997, 95:1505-1514.
79. Morales DE, McGowan KA, Grant DS, et al. Estrogen promotes angiogenic activity in human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro and in a murine model. Circulation 1995, 91:755-763.
80. Clarkson TB, Anthony MS, Klein KP Hormone replacement therapy and coronary artery atherosclerosis: the monkey model. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996, 103(Suppl 13):53-57.
81. Sack MN, Rader DJ, Cannon RO Oestrogen and inhibition of oxidation of low-density lipoproteins in postmenopausal women. Lancet 1994, 343:269-270.
82. Smith EP, Boyd J, Frank GR, et al. Estrogen resistance caused by a mutation in the estrogen-receptor gene in a man. N Engl J Med 1994, 331:1056-1061.
83. Mikkola TS, Clarkson TB Estrogen replacement therapy, atherosclerosis and vascular function. Cardiovasc Res 2002, 53:605-619.
84. Feldmer M, Kaling M, Takahashi S, et al. Glucocorticoid-and estrogen-responsive elements in the 5′flanking region of the rat angiotensinogen gene. J Hypertens 1991, 9:1005-1012.
85. Hassager C, Riis BJ, Strom V, et al. The long-term effect of oral and percutaneous estradiol on plasma renin substrate and blood pressure. Circulation 1987, 76:753-758.
86. Schunkert H, Danswer AH, Hense HW, et al. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on the renin-angiotensin system in postmenopausal women. Circulation 1997, 95:39-45.
87. De Lignieres B, Basdevant A, Thomas G, et al. Biological effects of estradiol-17 beta in postmenopausal women: oral versus percutaneous administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metabol 1986, 62:536-541.
88. Proudler AJ, Ahmed AI, Crook D, et al. Hormone replacement therapy and serum angiotensin-converting enzyme activity in post-menopausal women. J Hypertens 1999, 17:405-411.
89. Nickenig G, Baumer AT, Grohe C, et al. Estrogen modulates AT1 receptor gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Circulation 1998, 97:2197-2201.
90. Bazett H An analysis of the time-relations of electrocardiograms. Heart 1920, 7:353-370.
91. Larsen JA, Kadish AH Effects of gender on cardiac arrhythmias. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1998, 9:655-664.
92. Burke J, Goldberger J, Ehlert FA, et al. Gender differences in heart rate before and after autonomic blockade: evidence against an intrinsic gender effect. Am J Med 1996, 100:537-543.
93. Taneja T, Mahnert BW, Passman R, et al. Effects of sex and age on electrocardiographic and cardiac electrophysiological properties in adults. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol 2001, 24:16-21.
94. Rautaharju PM, Zhou SH, Wong S, et al. Sex differences in the evolution of the electrocardiographic QT interval with age. Can J Cardiol 1991, 8:690-695.
95. Madden K, Savard GK Effects of mental state on heart rate and blood pressure variability in men and women. Clin Physiol 1995, 15:557-569.
96. Ramaekers D, Ector H, Aubert AE, et al. Heart rate variability and heart rate in healthy volunteers. Is the female autonomic nervous system cardioprotective?. Eur Heart J 1998, 19:1334-1341.
97. Yamasaki Y, Kodama M, Matsuhisa M, et al. Diurnal heart rate variability in healthy subjects: effects of aging and sex difference. Am J Physiol 1996, 271:H303-H310.
98. Ryan SM, Goldberger AL, Picus SM, et al. Gender and age-related differences in heart rate dynamics: are women more complex than men?. J Am Coll Cardiol 1994, 24:1700-1707.
99. Stoney CM, Davis MC, Matthews KA Sex differences in physiological responses to stress and in coronary heart disease: a causal link?. Psychophysiology 1987, 24:127-131.
100. Davis SN, Shavers C, Costa F Differential gender responses to hypoglycemia are due to alterations in CNS drive and not glycemic thresholds. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000, 279:E1054-E1063.
101. Jones PP, Davy KP, Seals DR Influence of gender on the sympathetic neural adjustments to alterations in systemic oxygen levels in humans. Clin Physiol 1999, 19:153-160.
102. Cooke JP, Creager MA, Osmundson PJ, et al. Sex differences in control of cutaneous blood flow. Circulation 1990, 82:1607-1615.
103. Pham RV, Rosen MR Sex, hormones and repolarization. Cardiovasc Res 2002, 53:740-751.
104. Hara M, Danilo P, Rosen MR Effects of gonadal steroids on ventricular repolarization and on the response to E4031. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998, 285:1068-1072.
105. Pham TV, Robinson RB, Danilo P, et al. Effects of gonadal steroids on gender-related differences in transmural dispersion of L-type calcium current. Cardiovasc Res 2002, 53:752-762.
106. Ebert SN, Ziao-Ke L, Woosley RL Female gender as a risk factor for drug-induced cardiac arrhythmias: evaluation of clinical and experimental evidence. J Womens Health 1998, 7:547-557.
107. Kurita T, Ohe T, Marui N, et al. Bradycardia-induced abnormal QT prolongation in patients with complete atrioventricular block with torsades de pointes. Am J Cardiol 1992, 69:628-633.
108. Kounis NG, Zavras GM, Papadaki PJ, et al. Pregnancy-induced increase of supraventricular arrhythmias in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. Clin Cardiol 1994, 18:137-140.
109. Klangkalya B, Chan A The effects of ovarian hormones on beta-adrenergic and muscarinic receptors in rat heart. Life Sci 1988, 42:2307-2314.
110. Romhilt DW, Chaffin C, Choi SC, et al. Arrhythmias on ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring in women without apparent heart disease. Am J Cardiol 1984, 54:582-586.
111. Marchlinski FE, Megan P, Deely MP, et al. Sex-specific triggers for right ventricular outflow tract tachycardia. Am Heart J 2000, 139:1009-1013.