Eco-evolutionary dynamics in a changing world

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1249, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-17

  Hanski, Ilkka ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI   (Finland)

Author keywords

Dispersal; Eco evolutionary dynamics; Evolutionary rescue; Local adaptation; Metapopulation; Spatial dynamics

Indexed keywords

ALLOENZYME; GLUCOSE 6 PHOSPHATE ISOMERASE;

ARTICLE; BODY MASS; ECOEVOLUTIONARY DYNAMICS; ECOLOGICAL NICHE; ECOLOGICAL SPECIALIZATION; ECOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE; EUTROPHICATION; EVOLUTION; EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION; FOOD QUALITY; GENE FLOW; GENE FREQUENCY; HABITAT FRAGMENTATION; HETEROZYGOTE; HOMOZYGOTE; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMIGRATION; METAPOPULATION; NATURAL POPULATION; NATURAL SELECTION; NONHUMAN; PHENOTYPE; POPULATION DISPERSAL; POPULATION DYNAMICS; POPULATION SIZE; SPECIES EXTINCTION;

EID: 84857482849     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06419.x     Document Type: Article

References (153)

1. Caughley, G. 1994. Directions in conservation biology. J. Anim. Ecol. 63: 215-244.
2. Begon, M., J.L. Harper & C.R. Townsend 1996. Ecology. Blackwell. Oxford
3. Hanski, I. 1990. Density dependence, regulation and variability in animal populations. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 330: 141-150.
4. Turchin, P. 1995. Population regulation: old arguments and a new synthesis. In Population Dynamics: New Approaches and Synthesis. N. Cappuccino & P. Price, eds.: 19-40. Academic Press. London
5. Sinclair, A.R.E. 1989. Population regulation in animals. In Ecological Concepts. J.M. Cherrett, ed.: 197-242. Blackwell. Oxford
6. Dempster, J.P. 1983. The natural control of populations of butterflies and moths. Biol. Rev. 58: 461-481.
7. Hassell, M.P., J. Latto & R.M. May 1989. Seeing the wood for the trees: detecting density dependence from existing life-table studies. J. Anim. Ecol. 58: 883-892.
8. May, R.M. 1973. Stability and Complexity in Model Ecosystems. Princeton University Press. Princeton
9. Andrewartha, H.G. & L.C. Birch 1954. The Distribution and Abundance of Animals. The University of Chicago Press. Chicago
10. Kareiva, P. 1994. Space - the final frontier for ecological theory. Ecology 75: 1.
11. Tilman, D. & P. Kareiva 1997. Spatial Ecology. Princeton University Press. Princeton
12. Sutherland, W.J. 1996. From Individual Behaviour to Population Ecology. Oxford University Press. Oxford
13. Lomnicki, A. 1988. Population Ecology of Individuals. Princeton University Press. Princeton
14. Coffin, J.M. 1995. HIV population dynamics in vivo - implications for genetic variation, pathogenesis, and therapy. Science 267: 483-489.
15. Ottersen, G., B. Planque, A. Belgrano, et al 2001. Ecological effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Oecologia 128: 1-14.
16. Slobodkin, L.B. 1961. Growth and Regulation of Animal Populations. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. New York
17. Pelletier, F., D. Garant & A.P. Hendry 2009. Eco-evolutionary dynamics: introduction. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1483-1489.
18. Kirkpatrick, M. & N.H. Barton 1997. Evolution of a species' range. Am. Nat. 150: 1-23.
19. Haldane, J.B.S. 1956. The relation between density regulation and natural selection. Proc. R. Soc. B. 145: 306-308.
20. Chitty, D. 1960. Population processes in the vole and their relevance to general theory. Can. J. Zool. 38: 99-113.
21. Chitty, D. 1967. The natural selection of self-regulatory behaviour in animal populations. Proc. Ecol. Soc. Austral. 2: 51-78.
22. Krebs, C.J. 1978. A review of the Chitty hypothesis of population regulation. Can. J. Zool. 56: 2463-2480.
23. Christian, J.J. 1978. Neurobehavioral endocrine regulation of small mammal populations. In Populations of Small Mammals under Natural Conditions. D.P. Snyder, ed.: 143-158, vol. 5. Special Publ., Pymatuning Lab. Ecology, Pittsburgh
24. Christian, J.J. 1950. The adreno-pituitary system and population cycles in mammals. J. Mammal. 31: 247-259.
25. Hanski, I. & H. Henttonen 2002. Population cycles of small rodents in Fennoscandia. In Population Cycles: Evidence for Trophic Interactions. A. Berryman, ed.: 44-68. Oxford University Press. New York.
26. Stenseth, N.C. 1999. Population cycles in voles and lemmings: density dependence and phase dependence in a stochastic world. Oikos 87: 427-461.
27. Boonstra, R. & P.T. Boag 1987. A test of the Chitty hypothesis: inheritance of life-history traits in meadow voles Microtus pennsylvanicus. Evolution 41: 929-947.
28. Turchin, P. & I. Hanski 2001. Contrasting alternative hypotheses about rodent cycles by translating them into parameterized models. Ecol. Lett. 4: 267-276.
29. Post, D.M. & E.P. Palkovacs 2009. Eco-evolutionary feedbacks in community and ecosystem ecology: interactions between the ecological theatre and the evolutionary play. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1629-1640.
30. Carroll, S.P., A.P. Hendry, D.N. Reznick & C.W. Fox 2007. Evolution on ecological time-scales. Funct. Ecol. 21: 387-393.
31. Kinnison, M.T. & N.G. Hairston 2007. Eco-evolutionary conservation biology: contemporary evolution and the dynamics of persistence. Funct. Ecol. 21: 444-454.
32. Saccheri, I. & I. Hanski 2006. Natural selection and population dynamics. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21: 341-347.
33. Schoener, T.W. 2011. The newest synthesis: understanding the interplay of evolutionary and ecological dynamics. Science 331: 426-429.
34. Bailey, J.K., J.A. Schweitzer, F. Ubeda, et al 2009. From genes to ecosystems: a synthesis of the effects of plant genetic factors across levels of organization. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1607-1616.
35. Palkovacs, E.P., M.C. Marshall, B.A. Lamphere, et al 2009. Experimental evaluation of evolution and coevolution as agents of ecosystem change in Trinidadian streams. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1617-1628.
36. Whitlock, M.C. 2004. Selection and drift in metapopulations. In Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution of Metapopulations. I. Hanski & O. Gaggiotti, eds.: 153-173. Elsevier Academic Press. Amsterdam
37. Lion, S., V.A.A. Jansen & T. Day 2011. Evolution in structured populations: beyond the kin versus group debate. Trends Ecol. Evol. 26: 193-201.
38. Tarnita, C.E., T. Antal, H. Ohtsuki & M.A. Nowak 2009. Evolutionary dynamics in set structured populations. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106: 8601-8604.
39. Thompson, J.N. 1998. Rapid evolution as an ecological process. Trends Ecol. Evol. 13: 329-332.
40. Hendry, A.P. & M.T. Kinnison 1999. Perspective. The pace of modern life: measuring rates of contemporary microevolution. Evolution 53: 1637-1653.
41. Fussmann, G.F., M. Loreau & P.A. Abrams 2007. Eco-evolutionary dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Funct. Ecol. 21: 465-477.
42. Hairston, N.G., S.P. Ellner, M.A. Geber, et al 2005. Rapid evolution and the convergence of ecological and evolutionary time. Ecol. Lett. 8: 1114-1127.
43. Pelletier, F., T. Clutton-Brock, J. Pemberton, et al 2007. The evolutionary demography of ecological change: linking trait variation and population growth. Science 315: 1571-1574.
44. Ezard, T.H.G., S.D. Cote & F. Pelletier 2009. Eco-evolutionary dynamics: disentangling phenotypic, environmental and population fluctuations. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1491-1498.
45. Ellner, S.P., M.A. Geber & N.G. Hairston 2011. Does rapid evolution matter? Measuring the rate of contemporary evolution and its impacts on ecological dynamics. Ecol. Lett. 14: 603-614.
46. Hairston, N.G., C.L. Holtmeier, W. Lampert, et al 2001. Natural selection for grazer resistance to toxic cyanobacteria: evolution of phenotypic plasticity? Evolution 55: 2203-2214.
47. Sinervo, B., E. Svensson & T. Comendant 2000. Density cycles and an offspring quantity and quality game driven by natural selection. Nature 406: 985-988.
48. Yoshida, T., L.E. Jones, S.P. Ellner, et al 2003. Rapid evolution drives ecological dynamics in a predator-prey system. Nature 424: 303-306.
49. Becks, L., S.P. Ellner, L.E. Jones & N.G. Hairston 2010. Reduction of adaptive genetic diversity radically alters eco-evolutionary community dynamics. Ecol. Lett. 13: 989-997.
50. Hanski, I. & H. Henttonen 1996. Predation on competing rodent species: a simple explanation of complex patterns. J. Anim. Ecol. 65: 220-232.
51. Zheng, C., O. Ovaskainen & I. Hanski 2009. Modelling single nucleotide effects in phosphoglucose isomerase on dispersal in the Glanville fritillary butterfly: coupling of ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1519-1532.
52. Boag, P.T. & P.R. Grant 1981. Intense natural selection in a population of Darwin finches (Geospizinae) in the Galapagos. Science 214: 82-85.
53. Grant, P.R. & B.R. Grant 1995. Predicting microevolutionary responses to directional selection on heritable variation. Evolution 49: 241-251.
54. Crespi, B.J. 2004. Vicious circles: positive feedback in major evolutionary and ecological transitions. Trends Ecol. Evol. 19: 627-633.
55. Barrett, R.D.H., S.M. Rogers & D. Schluter 2008. Natural selection on a major armor gene in threespine stickleback. Science 322: 255-257.
56. Storz, J.F., A.M. Runck, S.J. Sabatino, et al 2009. Evolutionary and functional insights into the mechanism underlying high-altitude adaptation of deer mouse hemoglobin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106: 14450-14455.
57. Storz, J.F. & C.W. Wheat 2010. Integrating evolutionary and functional approaches to infer adaptation at specific loci. Evolution 64: 2489-2509.
58. Dalziel, A.C., S.M. Rogers & P.M. Schulte 2009. Linking genotypes to phenotypes and fitness: how mechanistic biology can inform molecular ecology. Mol. Ecol. 18: 4997-5017.
59. Hanski, I. & I. Saccheri 2006. Molecular-level variation affects population growth in a butterfly metapopulation. PLoS Biol. 4: 719-726.
60. Watt, W.B. 1983. Adaptation at specific loci. 2. Demographic and biochemical-elements in the maintenance of the Colias Pgi polymorphism. Genetics 103: 691-724.
61. Watt, W.B. 2003. Mechanistic studies of butterfly adaptations. In Ecology and Evolution taking Flight: Butterflies as Model Systems. C.L. Boggs, W.B. Watt and P. R. Ehrlich, eds.: 319-352. University of Chicago Press. Chicago
62. Watt, W.B. 1977. Adaptation at specific loci. 1. Natural selection on phosphoglucose isomerase of Colias butterflies - biochemical and population aspects. Genetics 87: 177-194.
63. Hanski, I. 2011. Eco-evolutionary spatial dynamics in the Glanville fritillary butterfly. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108: 14397-14404.
64. Saastamoinen, M. & I. Hanski 2008. Genotypic and environmental effects on flight activity and oviposition in the Glanville fritillary butterfly. Am. Nat. 171: 701-712.
65. Klemme, I. & I. Hanski 2009. Heritability of and strong single gene (Pgi) effects on life-history traits in the Glanville fritillary butterfly. J. Evol. Biol. 22: 1944-1953.
66. Karl, I., T. Schmitt & K. Fischer 2008. Phosphoglucose isomerase genotype affects life-history traits and cold stress resistance in a Copper butterfly. Funct. Ecol. 22: 887-894.
67. Karl, I., K.H. Hoffmann & K. Fischer 2010. Food stress sensitivity and flight performance across phosphoglucose isomerase enzyme genotypes in the sooty copper butterfly. Popul. Ecol. 52: 307-315.
68. Dahlhoff, E.P. & N.E. Rank 2000. Functional and physiological consequences of genetic variation at phosphoglucose isomerase: heat shock protein expression is related to enzyme genotype in a montane beetle. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 10056-10061.
69. Rank, N.E. & E.P. Dahlhoff 2002. Allele frequency shifts in response to climate change and physiological consequences of allozyme variation in a montane insect. Evolution 56: 2278-2289.
70. Wheat, C.W. 2010. Phosphoglucose isomerase (Pgi) performance and fitness effects among Arthropods and its potential role as an adaptive marker in conservation genetics. Conserv. Genet. 11: 387-397.
71. Reznick, D.N. & C.K. Ghalambor 2001. The population ecology of contemporary adaptations: what empirical studies reveal about the conditions that promote adaptive evolution. Genetica 112-113: 183-198.
72. Hanski, I., C. Erälahti, M. Kankare, et al 2004. Variation in migration rate among individuals maintained by landscape structure. Ecol. Lett. 7: 958-966.
73. Wheat, C.W., H.W. Fescemyer, J. Kvist, et al 2011. Functional genomics of life history variation in a butterfly metapopulation. Mol. Ecol. 20: 1813-1828.
74. Olivieri, I. & P.-H. Gouyon 1997. Evolution of migration rate and other traits: the metapopulation effect. In Metapopulation Biology. I.A. Hanski & M.E. Gilpin, eds.: 293-324. Academic Press. San Diego
75. Pake, C.E. & D.L. Venable 1996. Seed banks in desert annuals: implications for persistence and coexistence in variable environments. Ecology 77: 1427-1435.
76. Rees, M. 1996. Evolutionary ecology of seed dormancy and seed size. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 351: 1299-1308.
77. Hopper, K.R. 1999. Risk-spreading and bet-hedging in insect population biology. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 44: 535-560.
78. Hanski, I. 1988. Four kinds of extra long diapause in insects: a review of theory and observations. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 25: 37-53.
79. Vasseur, D.A., P. Amarasekare, V.H.W. Rudolf & J.M. Levine 2011. Eco-evolutionary dynamics enable coexistence via neighbor-dependent selection. Am. Nat. 178: E96-E109.
80. Lankau, R.A. & S.Y. Strauss 2007. Mutual feedbacks maintain both genetic and species diversity in a plant community. Science 317: 1561-1563.
81. Duffy, M.A. & L. Sivars-Becker 2007. Rapid evolution and ecological host-parasite dynamics. Ecol. Lett. 10: 44-53.
82. Holt, R.D. & M.S. Gaines 1992. Analysis of adaptation in heterogeneous landscapes: implications for the evolution of fundamental niches. Evol. Ecol. 6: 433-447.
83. Pulliam, H.R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population regulation. Am. Nat. 132: 652-661.
84. Hoffmann, A.A. & M.W. Blows 1994. Species borders - ecological and evolutionary perspectives. Trends Ecol. Evol. 9: 223-227.
85. Kawecki, T.J. 2004. Ecological end evolutionary consequences of source-sink population dynamics. In Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution of Metapopulations. I. Hanski & O.E. Gaggiotti, eds.: 387-414. Elsevier Academic Press. Amsterdam
86. Kawecki, T.J. 2008. Adaptation to marginal habitats. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 39: 321-342.
87. Gaston, K.J. 2009. Geographic range limits of species. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 276: 1391-1393.
88. Dias, P.C. & J. Blondel 1996. Local specialization and maladaptation in Mediterranean blue tits Parus caeruleus. Oecologia 107: 79-86.
89. Ronce, O. & M. Kirkpatrick 2001. When sources become sinks: migrational meltdown in heterogeneous habitats. Evolution 55: 1520-1531.
90. Boughton, D.A. 2000. The dispersal system of a butterfly: a test of source-sink theory suggests the intermediate-scale hypothesis. Am. Nat. 156: 131-144.
91. Bridle, J.R., S. Gavaz & W.J. Kennington 2009. Testing limits to adaptation along altitudinal gradients in rainforest Drosophila. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 276: 1507-1515.
92. van Heerwaarden, B., V. Kellermann, M. Schiffer, et al 2009. Testing evolutionary hypotheses about species borders: patterns of genetic variation towards the southern borders of two rainforest Drosophila and a related habitat generalist. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 276: 1517-1526.
93. Gaston, K.J. 2003. The Structure and Dynamics of Geographical Ranges. Oxford University Press. Oxford
94. Blows, M.W. & A.A. Hoffmann 2005. A reassessment of genetic limits to evolutionary change. Ecology 86: 1371-1384.
95. Hoffmann, A.A., R.J. Hallas, J.A. Dean & M. Schiffer 2003. Low potential for climatic stress adaptation in a rainforest Drosophila species. Science 301: 100-102.
96. Kellermann, V.M., B. van Heerwaarden, A.A. Hoffmann & C.M. Sgro 2006. Very low additive genetic variance and evolutionary potential in multiple populations of two rainforest Drosophila species. Evolution 60: 1104-1108.
97. Brakefield, P.M. 2006. Evo-devo and constraints on selection. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21: 362-368.
98. Garner, T.W.J., P.B. Pearman & S. Angelone 2004. Genetic diversity across a vertebrate species' range: a test of the central-peripheral hypothesis. Mol. Ecol. 13: 1047-1053.
99. Jacquemyn, H., K. Vandepitte, R. Brys, et al 2007. Fitness variation and genetic diversity in small, remnant populations of the food deceptive orchid Orchis purpurea. Biol. Conserv. 139: 203-210.
100. Hanski, I., T. Mononen & O. Ovaskainen 2011. Eco-evolutionary metapopulation dynamics and the spatial scale of adaptation. Am. Nat. 177: 29-43.
101. Thomas, C.D., E.J. Bodsworth, R.J. Wilson, et al 2001. Ecological and evolutionary processes at expanding range margins. Nature 411: 577-581.
102. Travis, J.M.J., T. Munkemuller & O.J. Burton 2010. Mutation surfing and the evolution of dispersal during range expansions. J. Evol. Biol. 23: 2656-2667.
103. Phillips, B.L., G.P. Brown & R. Shine 2010. Life-history evolution in range-shifting populations. Ecology 91: 1617-1627.
104. Travis, J.M.J. & C. Dytham 2002. Dispersal evolution during invasions. Evol. Ecol. Res. 4: 1119-1129.
105. Simmons, A.D. & C.D. Thomas 2004. Changes in dispersal during species' range expansions. Am. Nat. 164: 378-395.
106. Hughes, C.L., C. Dytham & J.K. Hill 2007. Modelling and analysing evolution of dispersal in populations at expanding range boundaries. Ecol. Entomol. 32: 437-445.
107. Hill, J.K., C.D. Thomas & D.S. Blakeley 1999. Evolution of flight morphology in a butterfly that has recently expanded its geographic range. Oecologia 121: 165-170.
108. Hill, J.K., C.D. Thomas & O.T. Lewis 1999. Flight morphology in fragmented populations of a rare British butterfly, Hesperia comma. Biol. Conserv. 87: 277-283.
109. Phillips, B.L., G.P. Brown & R. Shine 2010. Evolutionarily accelerated invasions: the rate of dispersal evolves upwards during the range advance of cane toads. J. Evol. Biol. 23: 2595-2601.
110. Phillips, B.L., G.P. Brown, J.K. Webb & R. Shine 2006. Invasion and the evolution of speed in toads. Nature 439: 803-803.
111. Mitikka, V. & I. Hanski 2010. Pgi genotype influences flight metabolism at the expanding range margin of the European map butterfly. Ann. Zool. Fenn. 47: 1-14.
112. Niitepõld, K. 2010. Genotype by temperature interactions in the metabolic rate of the Glanville fritillary butterfly. J. Exp. Biol. 213: 1042-1048.
113. Niitepõld, K., A.D. Smith, J.L. Osborne, et al 2009. Flight metabolic rate and Pgi genotype influence butterfly dispersal rate in the field. Ecology 90: 2223-2232.
114. Orsini, L., C.W. Wheat, C.R. Haag, et al 2009. Fitness differences associated with Pgi SNP genotypes in the Glanville fritillary butterfly (Melitaea cinxia). J. Evol. Biol. 22: 367-375.
115. Hanski, I. 1999. Metapopulation Ecology. Oxford University Press. New York
116. Hanski, I. & T. Mononen 2011. Eco-evolutionary dynamics of dispersal in spatially heterogeneous environments. Ecol. Lett. 19: 1025-1034.
117. Heino, M. & I. Hanski 2001. Evolution of migration rate in a spatially realistic metapopulation model. Am. Nat. 157: 495-511.
118. Laine, A.L. 2005. Spatial scale of local adaptation in a plant-pathogen metapopulation. J. Evol. Biol. 18: 930-938.
119. Burdon, J.J. & P.H. Thrall 2009. Coevolution of plants and their pathogens in natural habitats. Science 324: 755-756.
120. Thompson, J.N. 2005. The Geographic Mosaic of Coevolution. University of Chicago Press. Chicago
121. Gomez, P. & A. Buckling 2011. Bacteria-phage antagonistic coevolution in soil. Science 332: 106-109.
122. Cody, M.L. & J. Overton 1996. Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal in island plant populations. J. Ecol. 84: 53-61.
123. Schtickzelle, N., G. Mennechez & M. Baguette 2006. Dispersal depression with habitat fragmentation in the bog fritillary butterfly. Ecology 87: 1057-1065.
124. Gandon, S. & Y. Michalakis 1999. Evolutionary stable dispersal rate in a metapopulation with extinctions and kin competition. J. Theor. Biol. 199: 275-290.
125. Hanski, I. 2005. The Shrinking World: Ecological Consequences of Habitat Loss. International Ecology Institute. Oldendorf/Luhe
126. Ronce, O. & I. Olivieri 2004. Life history evolution in metapopulations. In Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution of Metapopulations. I. Hanski & O.E. Gaggiotti, eds.: 227-257. Elsevier Academic Press. Amsterdam
127. Ronce, O. 2007. How does it feel to be like a rolling stone? Ten questions about dispersal evolution. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 38: 231-253.
128. Clobert, J., E. Danchin, A.A. Dhont & J.D. Nichols 2001. Dispersal. Oxford University Press. Oxford
129. Massol, F., A. Duputie, P. David & P. Jarne 2011. Asymmetric patch size distribution leads to disruptive selection on dispersal. Evolution 65: 490-500.
130. Baguette, M. 2004. The classical metapopulation theory and the real, natural world: a critical appraisal. Basic Appl. Ecol. 5: 213-224.
131. Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from
132. IUCN. 2011. Retrieved January 17, 2012, from
133. Berteaux, D., D. Reale, A.G. McAdam & S. Boutin 2004. Keeping pace with fast climate change: can arctic life count on evolution? Integr. Comp. Biol. 44: 140-151.
134. Pulido, F. & P. Berthold 2004. Microevolutionary response to climatic change. In Birds and Climate Change. A.P. Møller, W. Fielder & P. Berthold, eds.: 151-183, vol. 35, Adv. Ecol. Research. Elsevier. Amsterdam
135. Davis, M.B., R.G. Shaw & J.R. Etterson 2005. Evolutionary responses to changing climate. Ecology 86: 1704-1714.
136. Hill, J.K., H.M. Griffiths & C.D. Thomas 2011. Climate change and evolutionary adaptations at species' range margins. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 56: 143-159.
137. Gienapp, P., C. Teplitsky, J.S. Alho, et al 2008. Climate change and evolution: disentangling environmental and genetic responses. Mol. Ecol. 17: 167-178.
138. Poethke, H.J., C. Dytham & T. Hovestadt 2011. A metapopulation paradox: partial improvement of habitat may reduce metapopulation persistence. Am. Nat. 177: 792-799.
139. Parvinen, K. 2007. Evolutionary suicide in a discrete-time metapopulation model. Evol. Ecol. Res. 9: 619-633.
140. Bell, G. & A. Gonzalez 2011. Adaptation and evolutionary rescue in metapopulations experiencing environmental deterioration. Science 332: 1327-1330.
141. Grant, B.R. 1999. Evology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches [reprinting with new Afterword]. Princeton University Press. Princeton
142. Wu, L., A.D. Bradshaw & D.A. Thurman 1975. Potential for evolution of heavy metal tolerance in plants. 3. Rapid evolution of copper tolerance in Agrostis stolonifera. Heredity 34: 165.
143. Gregory, R.P.G. & A.D. Bradshaw 1965. Heavy metal tolerance in populations of Agrostis tenuis Sibth and other grasses. New Phytol. 64: 131.
144. Zheng, C.Z., O. Ovaskainen & I. Hanski 2009. Modelling single nucleotide effects in phosphoglucose isomerase on dispersal in the Glanville fritillary butterfly: coupling of ecological and evolutionary dynamics. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 364: 1519-1532.
145. Brautigam, A. & U. Gowik 2010. What can next generation sequencing do for you? Next generation sequencing as a valuable tool in plant research. Plant Biol. 12: 831-841.
146. Ekblom, R. & J. Galindo 2011. Applications of next generation sequencing in molecular ecology of non-model organisms. Heredity 107: 1-15.
147. Bellin, D., A. Ferrarini, A. Chimento, et al 2009. Combining next-generation pyrosequencing with microarray for large scale expression analysis in non-model species. BMC Genomics. 10.
148. Ozgul, A., S. Tuljapurkar, T.G. Benton, et al 2009. The dynamics of phenotypic change and the shrinking sheep of St. Kilda. Science 325: 464-467.
149. Ghalambor, C.K., J.K. McKay, S.P. Carroll & D.N. Reznick 2007. Adaptive versus non-adaptive phenotypic plasticity and the potential for contemporary adaptation in new environments. Funct. Ecol. 21: 394-407.
150. Chevin, L.M. & R. Lande 2011. Adaptation to marginal habitats by evolution of increased phenotypic plasticity. J. Evol. Biol. 24: 1462-1476.
151. Feldhaar, H. 2011. Bacterial symbionts as mediators of ecologically important traits of insect hosts. Ecol. Entomol. 36: 533-543.
152. Leonardo, T.E. & E.B. Mondor 2006. Symbiont modifies host life-history traits that affect gene flow. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 273: 1079-1084.
153. Lankau, R.A., E. Wheeler, A.E. Bennett & S.Y. Strauss 2011. Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to an intransitive competitive network that promotes both genetic and species diversity. J. Ecol. 99: 176-185.