Same-sex marriage, second-class citizenship, and law's social meanings

Virginia Law Review

Volumn 97, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1267-1346

  Dorf, Michael C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

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EID: 84855870299     PISSN: 00426601     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (246)

1. In re Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d 384 (Cal. 2008).
2. Kerrigan v. Comm'r of Pub. Health, 957 A.2d 407 (Conn. 2008).
3. Varnum v. Brien, 763 N.W.2d 862 (Iowa 2009).
4. Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941 (Mass. 2003).
5. Maine, An Act to End Discrimination in Civil Marriage and Affirm Religious Freedom, 2009 Me. Laws § 2 (codified as Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 19-A, § 650-A (2009));
6. New Hampshire, N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 457:1-a (2010);
7. New York, 2011 N.Y. Laws ch. 95 (eff. July 24, 2011);
8. and Vermont, Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 15, § 8 (2009).
9. A referendum thereafter repealed the Maine law. Abby Goodnough, A Setback in Maine for Gay Marriage, but Medical Marijuana Law Expands, N.Y. Times, Nov. 4, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/05/us/politics/05maine.html.
10. See, e.g., Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d at 416 n.24 (noting nine substantive differences).
11. Kerrigan, 957 A.2d at 419
12. Varnum, 763 N.W.2d at 906
13. Opinions of the Justices to the Senate, 802 N.E.2d 565, 570 (Mass. 2004)
14. See Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010).
15. See Varnum, 763 N.W.2d at 885-96;
16. Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d at 446;
17. Kerrigan, 957 A.2d at 418-19;
18. Goodridge, 798 N.E.2d at 971-72.
19. See Perry, 704 F. Supp. 2d at 1004.
20. Misha Isaak, Comment, "What's in a Name?": Civil Unions and the Constitutional Significance of "Marriage," 10 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 607, 613-30 (2008).
21. See Courtney Megan Cahill, (Still) Not Fit to be Named: Moving Beyond Race to Explain Why 'Separate' Nomenclature for Gay and Straight Relationships Will Never Be 'Equal,' 97 Geo. L.J. 1155 (2009).
22. 388 U.S. 1 (1967).
23. For a forceful presentation of the Loving analogy in the marriage context and beyond, see Andrew Koppelman, Why Discrimination Against Lesbians and Gay Men is Sex Discrimination, 69 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 197 (1994).
24. For a skeptical perspective, see Lynn D. Wardle & Lincoln C. Oliphant, In Praise of Loving: Reflections on the "Loving Analogy" for Same-Sex Marriage, 51 How. L.J. 117 (2007).
25. See Marriage Cases, 183 P.3d at 437-39.
26. See Perry, 704 F. Supp. 2d at 997.
27. Cf. Kerrigan v. Comm'r of Pub. Health, 957 A.2d 407, 417 n.14 (Conn. 2008) (contending that opposite-sex couples would feel themselves injured by the withholding of the term "marriage" from their unions).
28. 347 U.S. 483, 494 (1954)
29. 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting)
30. See Herbert Wechsler, Toward Neutral Principles of Constitutional Law, 73 Harv. L. Rev. 1, 31-34 (1959).
31. Charles L. Black, Jr., The Lawfulness of the Segregation Decisions, 69 Yale L.J. 421, 426-27 (1960).
32. 403 U.S. 217 (1971).
33. See Griffin v. Cnty. Sch. Bd. of Prince Edward Cnty., 377 U.S. 218 (1964).
34. Laurence H. Tribe, The Mystery of Motive, Private and Public: Some Notes Inspired by the Problems of Hate Crime and Animal Sacrifice, 1993 Sup. Ct. Rev. 1, 23.
35. See Caroline Mala Corbin, Nonbelievers and Government Religious Speech, 97 Iowa L. Rev. (forthcoming Jan. 2012)
36. (citing Palmer, 403 U.S. at 224)).
37. Yet if it did reject a motive test, Palmer was overruled in Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229 (1976)
38. See, e.g., Nancy D. Polikoff, Why Lesbians and Gay Men Should Read Martha Fineman, 8 Am. U. J. Gender Soc. Pol'y & L. 167, 176 (2000);
39. Edward A. Zelinsky, Deregulating Marriage: The Pro-Marriage Case for Abolishing Civil Marriage, 27 Cardozo L. Rev. 1161, 1210-11 (2006).
40. See, e.g., Nancy D. Polikoff, Equality and Justice for Lesbian and Gay Families and Relationships, 61 Rutgers L. Rev. 529, 545 (2009).
41. 500 U.S. 173 (1991) (upholding the abortion "gag rule").
42. 555 U.S. 460 (2009) (treating the decision whether to grant or deny municipal permission for placement of a permanent monument in a public park as within the purview of permissible government speech).
43. See Ronald Dworkin, Law's Empire 228 (1986)
44. See, e.g., Matthew D. Adler, Expressive Theories of Law: A Skeptical Overview, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1363, 1444-47 (2000);
45. Steven D. Smith, Expressivist Jurisprudence and the Depletion of Meaning, 60 Md. L. Rev. 506, 549-76 (2001)
46. For a general defense of expressivism, see Elizabeth S. Anderson & Richard H. Pildes, Expressive Theories of Law: A General Restatement, 148 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1503 (2000).
47. See, e.g., Transcript of Proceedings at 1928,
48. Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010) (No. C 09-2292-VRW) (Testimony of Hak-Shing William Tam) (referring to those who seek to enter same-sex marriage as "falling into Satan's hand").
49. Perry, 704 F. Supp. 2d at 994
50. see also Vincent J. Samar, Privacy and the Debate Over Same-Sex Marriage Versus Unions, 54 DePaul L. Rev. 783, 785 (2005)
51. Perry, 704 F. Supp. 2d at 973
52. 517 U.S. 620 (1996).
53. For a useful elucidation of the connections among these provisions, see Christopher L. Eisgruber, Political Unity and the Powers of Government, 41 UCLA L. Rev. 1297, 1304 (1994). (Pubitemid 24809695) (Pubitemid 24809695)
54. See Nancy Levit, Ethereal Torts, 61 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 136, 191 (1992)
55. See, e.g., Standard Fruit and Vegetable Co. v. Johnson, 985 S.W.2d 62, 68 (Tex. 1998).
56. Meritor Sav. Bank, FSB v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57, 67 (1986)
57. (quoting Henson v. Dundee, 682 F.2d 897, 904 (11th Cir. 1982))
58. Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife, 504 U.S. 555, 560 (1992)
59. See, e.g., Richard H. McAdams, Cooperation and Conflict: The Economics of Group Status Production and Race Discrimination, 108 Harv. L. Rev. 1003, 1006-08 (1995).
60. See Palsgraf v. Long Island R.R. Co., 162 N.E. 99, 103-04 (N.Y. 1928) (Andrews, J., dissenting).
61. See, e.g., Lujan, 504 U.S. at 560.
62. See United States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598, 620-22 (2000);
63. DeShaney v. Winnebago Cnty. Dep't of Soc. Servs., 489 U.S. 189, 195-96 (1989);
64. The Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3, 17-18 (1883).
65. See Andrew Koppelman, Commentary, On the Moral Foundations of Legal Expressivism, 60 Md. L. Rev. 777, 781 (2001)
66. See Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals 63-65 (James W. Ellington trans., Hackett Publishing Co. 3d ed. 1993) (1785).
67. See Deborah Hellman, The Expressive Dimension of Equal Protection, 85 Minn. L. Rev. 1 (2000); (Pubitemid 33629890) (Pubitemid 33629890)
68. Andrew Koppelman, Antidiscrimination Law and Social Equality 57-76 (1996);
69. Richard H. Pildes & Richard G. Niemi, Expressive Harms, "Bizarre Districts," and Voting Rights: Evaluating Election-District Appearances after Shaw v. Reno, 92 Mich. L. Rev. 483 (1993);
70. Cass R. Sunstein, The Anticaste Principle, 92 Mich. L. Rev. 2410 (1994).
71. See, e.g., Bond v. United States, 131 S. Ct. 2355, 2364 (2011)
72. INS v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 930-31 & n.6 (1983)
73. See Matthew D. Adler & Michael C. Dorf, Constitutional Existence Conditions and Judicial Review, 89 Va. L. Rev. 1105, 1108- 09 (2003)
74. Cf. Milwaukee Deputy Sheriff's Ass'n v. Clarke, 574 F.3d 370, 372-73 (7th Cir. 2009)
75. 376 U.S. 254, 283 (1964).
76. Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 418 U.S. 323, 347 (1974)
77. But see Snyder v. Phelps, 131 S. Ct. 1207 (2011)
78. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971).
79. See Texas v. Johnson, 491 U.S. 397, 408-09 (1989)
80. Cf. Rosenberger v. Rector & Visitors of Univ. of Va., 515 U.S. 819, 833-34 (1995)
81. Rust v. Sullivan, 500 U.S. 173, 193-94 (1991)
82. See, e.g., Davenport v. Wash. Educ. Ass'n, 551 U.S. 177 (2007)
83. Keller v. State Bar of Cal., 496 U.S. 1 (1990)
84. Abood v. Detroit Bd. of Educ., 431 U.S. 209 (1977)
85. Putting a Stop to Smoky Thinking, Smokefree.gov, http://www.smokefree. gov/topic-benefits-smoky.aspx (last visited May 18, 2011).
86. See Impaired Driving, Nat'l Highway Traffic Safety Admin., http://www.nhtsa.gov/Impaired (last visited May 18, 2011);
87. About Domestic Violence, U.S. Dep't of Justice, http://www.ovw.usdoj.gov/ domviolence.htm (last visited May 18, 2011).
88. see Gia B. Lee, Persuasion, Transparency, and Government Speech, 56 Hastings L.J. 983 (2005) (proposing a government duty of candor).
89. 403 U.S. 602, 612-13 (1971).
90. Lamb's Chapel v. Ctr. Moriches Union Free Sch. Dist., 508 U.S. 384, 398 (1993) (Scalia, J., concurring in the judgment).
91. See, e.g., Satawa v. Bd. of Cnty. Rd. Comm'rs of Macomb Cnty., 687 F. Supp. 2d 682, 701 (E.D. Mich. 2009);
92. Weinbaum v. Las Cruces Pub. Schs., 465 F. Supp. 2d 1116, 1135-36 (D.N.M. 2006);
93. EEOC v. Preferred Mgmt. Corp., 216 F. Supp. 2d 763, 806-07 (S.D. Ind. 2002).
94. Cnty. of Allegheny v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573, 626 (1989) (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).
95. Compare Lamb's Chapel, 508 U.S. at 395
96. See Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677, 730-31 n.32 (2005) (Stevens, J., dissenting)
97. Elk Grove Unified Sch. Dist. v. Newdow, 542 U.S. 1, 45-46 (2004) (Thomas, J., concurring in the judgment)
98. Compare Cnty. of Allegheny, 492 U.S. at 624-25 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment)
99. See McCreary Cnty. v. ACLU, 545 U.S. 844, 894 n.4 (2005) (Scalia, J., dissenting)
100. Cnty. of Allegheny, 492 U.S. at 626 (O'Connor, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).
101. see also Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 592-93 (1992).
102. See Cantwell v. Connecticut, 310 U.S. 296, 310 (1940).
103. 319 U.S. 624 (1943).
104. See McCreary Cnty. v. ACLU, 545 U.S. 844, 897-98 (2005) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
105. See, e.g., Maine Youth Voting Campaign, Maine Citizenship Education Task Force, http://www.maine.gov/education/mecitizenshiped/youth/youth-voting. html(last visited May 18, 2011).
106. See, e.g., Stay-in-School Program, U.S. Dep't of State, http://www.state.gov/m/a/c15165.htm (last visited May 18, 2011);
107. Prepared Remarks of President Barack Obama: Back to School Event at The White House (Sept. 8, 2009), http://www.whitehouse.gov/mediaresources/ preparedschoolremarks/.
108. See Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution 246-72 (1967).
109. Compare Emp't Div. v. Smith, 494 U.S. 872, 877-78 (1990)
110. with City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507, 546-47 (1997) (O'Connor, J., dissenting)
111. Michael C. Dorf, Equal Protection Incorporation, 88 Va. L. Rev. 951, 987 (2002).
112. See Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896) (Harlan, J., dissenting)
113. Compare Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701, 747-48 (2007) (Roberts, C.J., plurality opinion) (arguing that "[t]he way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race"),
114. see Michael C. Dorf, A Partial Defense of an Anti-Discrimination Principle, Issues in Legal Scholarship 1-6 (Aug. 2002), http://scholarship.law. cornell.edu/facpub/116/.
115. See Adarand Constructors v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200, 245 (1995) (Stevens, J., dissenting)
116. Reva B. Siegel, Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown, 117 Harv. L. Rev. 1470, 1472-73 (2004).
117. 347 U.S. 483, 494 n.11 (1954).
118. 515 U.S. 70, 121 (1995) (Thomas, J., concurring).
119. 509 U.S. 630, 652 (1993).
120. Samuel Issacharoff & Pamela S. Karlan, Standing and Misunderstanding in Voting Rights Law, 111 Harv. L. Rev. 2276, 2285- 88 (1998) (Pubitemid 128403214) (Pubitemid 128403214)
121. See Shaw, 509 U.S. at 644.
122. See, e.g., Bush v. Vera, 517 U.S. 952, 980 (1996) (O'Connor, J., plurality opinion);
123. Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900, 912-13 (1995).
124. Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701, 730 (2007)
125. (quoting Miller, 515 U.S. at 911)
126. See Miller, 515 U.S. at 911.
127. See Metro Broad. v. FCC, 497 U.S. 547, 633 n.1 (1990) (Kennedy, J., dissenting)
128. See Population Registration Act No. 30 of 1950, Statutes of the Republic of South Africa 71 (1985).")
129. (quoting Fullilove v. Klutznick, 448 U.S. 448, 534 n.5 (1980) (Stevens, J., dissenting)).
130. See Parents Involved, 551 U.S. at 797-98 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment);
131. Adarand Constructors v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200, 243 (1995) (Stevens, J., dissenting).
132. 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
133. See, e.g., Parents Involved, 551 U.S. at 864 (Breyer, J., dissenting);
134. Gratz v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 244, 301-02 (2003) (Ginsburg, J., dissenting).
135. See Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 632 (1996);
136. City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Ctr., 473 U.S. 432, 442, 448-49 (1985);
137. U.S. Dep't of Agric. v. Moreno, 413 U.S. 528, 534 (1973).
138. See Romer, 517 U.S. at 644 (Scalia, J., dissenting)
139. See Saul Friedländer, The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jew, 1939-1945, at 251-53 (2007);
140. Polizeiverordnung über die Kennzeichnung der Juden, Verfassungsgesetze des Deutschen Reichs, http://www.verfassungen.de/de/de33-45/ juden41.htm (last visited Oct. 27, 2010) (setting forth a Nazi law establishing criminal penalties for Jews who failed to wear a yellow, palm-sized, six-pointed fabric star on their clothing when appearing in public).
141. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 551 (1896).
142. See Wooley, 430 U.S. at 715, 717.
143. 476 U.S. 693 (1986).
144. 494 U.S. 872 (1990).
145. Bowen, 476 U.S. at 703.
146. See City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507, 535-36 (1997).
147. See Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418, 424 (2006).
148. The express statutory purpose of RFRA is "to restore the compelling interest test as set forth in Sherbert v. Verner, 374 U.S. 398 (1963)."
149. 42 U.S.C. 2000bb(b)(1) (2006).
150. Sherbert, 374 U.S. at 400-01, 410 (1963).
151. Catharine A. MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law 172 (1987).
152. See Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852), reprinted in Karl Marx: Selected Writings 300, 317-22 (David McLellan ed., 1977)
153. 536 U.S. 304, 306 (2002);
154. See Remarks by the President at the Signing of the 21st Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act of 2010 at The White House, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/10/08/remarks-president-signing- 21st-century-communications-and-video-accessib (last visited Oct. 27, 2010).
155. See Jennifer Swize, Note, Transracial Adoption and the Unblinkable Difference: Racial Dissimilarity Serving the Interests of Adopted Children, 88 Va. L. Rev. 1079, 1113 n.118 (2002).
156. See The Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics, The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), http://www.doleinstitute.org/archives/wordsDisabilities. shtml (last visited Oct. 27, 2010).
157. See Rosemary Kennedy, JFK's Sister, Dies at 86, MSNBC.com, Jan. 8, 2005, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6801152/.
158. See Laurence H. Tribe, Toward a Syntax of the Unsaid: Construing the Sounds of Congressional and Constitutional Silence, 57 Ind. L.J. 515 (1982).
159. See U.S. Census Bureau, LGBT Fact Sheet, available at http://2010.census.gov/partners/pdf/factSheet-General-LGBT.pdf.
160. See Omi Morgenstern Leissner, The Problem That Has No Name, 4 Cardozo Women's L.J. 321, 354 (1998).
161. Suzanne A. Kim, Marital Naming/Naming Marriage: Language and Status in Family Law, 85 Ind. L.J. 893, 910-11 (2010).
162. See, e.g., Robert P. George, Judicial Usurpation and Sexual Liberation: Courts and the Abolition of Marriage, 17 Regent U. L. Rev. 21, 28 (2004)
163. See, e.g., Cass R. Sunstein, Backlash's Travels, 42 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 435, 435-36 (2007).
164. See, e.g., Jeremy Waldron, The Core of the Case Against Judicial Review, 115 Yale L.J. 1346, 1348-49 (2006).
165. See Robert P. George, What's Sex Got to Do With It?: Marriage, Morality, and Rationality, in The Meaning of Marriage: Family, State, Market, and Morals 142 (Robert P. George & Jean Bethke Elshtain eds., 2006).
166. See Goodridge v. Dep't of Pub. Health, 798 N.E.2d 941, 974 (Mass. 2003) (Spina, J., dissenting).
167. Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 578 (2003).
168. Cf. Maher v. Roe, 432 U.S. 464, 474 (1977)
169. See Christian Legal Soc'y v. Martinez, 130 S. Ct. 2971, 2990 (2010)
170. citing Lawrence, 539 U.S. at 575;
171. Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010) (No. 09-CV-2292 VRW)
172. See Brief for Petitioner at 39-40, Christian Legal Soc'y, 130 S. Ct. 2971 (2010) (No. 08-1371).
173. 478 U.S. 186 (1986).
174. 539 U.S. 558 (2003).
175. See, e.g., Watkins v. U.S. Army, 875 F.2d 699, 716-17 (9th Cir. 1989) (en banc);
176. Cass R. Sunstein, Sexual Orientation and the Constitution: A Note on the Relationship Between Due Process and Equal Protection, 55 U. Chi. L. Rev. 1161, 1166-67 (1988).
177. See Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 641 (1996) (Scalia, J., dissenting)
178. See Plaintiffs' and Plaintiff-Intervenors' Joint Opposition to Defendant- Intervenors' Motion for Summary Judgment at 9,
179. Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921 (N.D. Cal. 2010) (No. 09-2292 VRW)
180. See, e.g., Jennifer Agiesta, Post-ABC Poll: Views on gay marriage steady, more back civil unions, Wash. Post (Feb. 12, 2010, 6:00 AM), http://voices.washingtonpost.com/behind-the-numbers/2010/02/post-abc-poll-views- on-gay-mar.html;
181. Majority Continues to Support Civil Unions, The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life (Oct. 9, 2009), http://pewforum.org/Gay-Marriage-and- Homosexuality/Majority-Continues-To-Support-Civil-Unions.aspx.
182. See Romer, 517 U.S. at 644 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
183. See John M. Coski, The Confederate Battle Flag: America's Most Embattled Emblem 17-18 (2005).
184. The Mississippi flag looks like this: The Official State Website of Mississippi, Flags that have flown over Mississippi, http://www.mississippi.gov/ flags.jsp (last visited Oct. 27, 2010).
185. For a very thoughtful discussion of such monuments, see Sanford Levinson, They Whisper: Reflections on Flags, Monuments, and State Holidays, and the Construction of Social Meaning in a Multicultural Society, 70 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 1079, 1084-95, 1111-19 (1995).
186. Cf. Van Orden v. Perry, 545 U.S. 677, 704 (2005) (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment)
187. See James Forman, Jr., Driving Dixie Down: Removing the Confederate Flag from Southern State Capitols, 101 Yale L.J. 505, 513 & n.57 (1991).
188. 891 F.2d 1555 (11th Cir. 1990).
189. See Hunt, 891 F.2d at 1562.
190. See Confederate History Proclamation-Original Text, Richmond Times-Dispatch (Apr. 7, 2010), http://www.timesdispatch.com/news/2010/apr/07/ confederate-history-proclamation-original-text-ar-163836/ [hereinafter Richmond-Times Dispatch].
191. See, e.g., Larry Alexander & Saikrishna Prakash, "Is That English You're Speaking?" Why Intention Free Interpretation Is an Impossibility, 41 San Diego L. Rev. 967, 971-72 (2004);
192. Stanley Fish, There Is No Textualist Position, 42 San Diego L. Rev. 629, 649-50 (2005).
193. see Kent Greenawalt, A Pluralist Approach to Interpretation: Wills and Contracts, 42 San Diego L. Rev. 533, 544-45 (2005).
194. See Wayne Barnes, The Objective Theory of Contracts, 76 U. Cin. L. Rev. 1119, 1157 (2008);
195. John F. Manning, The Absurdity Doctrine, 116 Harv. L. Rev. 2387, 2408 (2003)
196. See Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 245-46 (1976).
197. Personnel Adm'r of Mass. v. Feeney, 442 U.S. 256, 279 (1979).
198. NAACP v. Hunt, 891 F.2d 1555, 1562 (11th Cir. 1990).
199. Except for an omitted ellipsis and set of brackets around the words "is" and "and," that is a quotation from Justice Harlan's dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537, 559 (1896).
200. See Adarand Constructors v. Pena, 515 U.S. 200, 228-29 (1995).
201. See, e.g., Hernandez v. New York, 500 U.S. 352, 360-61 (1991)
202. Compare Kent Greenawalt, 2 Religion and the Constitution: Establishment and Fairness 140 (2008)
203. Steven D. Smith, Barnette's Big Blunder, 78 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 625, 655 (2003).
204. See Steven H. Shiffrin, Liberalism and the Establishment Clause, 78 Chi-Kent L. Rev. 717, 726 (2003).
205. 482 U.S. 578 (1987).
206. Claudia Wallis, The Evolution Wars, Time, Aug. 15, 2005, at 27, 28
207. See Nomi Maya Stolzenberg, "He Drew a Circle That Shut Me Out": Assimilation, Indoctrination, and the Paradox of a Liberal Education, 106 Harv. L. Rev. 581, 584-88 (1993).
208. See Smith v. Bd. of Sch. Comm'rs, 655 F. Supp. 939, 982 (S.D. Ala. 1987), rev'd 827 F.2d 684 (11th Cir. 1987).
209. See Top Scientists and Educators Call on Government to Include Evolution in All Schools, British Humanist Ass'n (June 18, 2010), http://www.humanism.org. uk/news/view/571
210. Cnty. of Allegheny v. ACLU, 492 U.S. 573, 655 (1989) (Kennedy, J., concurring in the judgment in part and dissenting in part).
211. See John Gibson, The War on Christmas, Fox News (Oct. 21, 2005), http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,173072,00.html.
212. Stephen Jay Gould, Nonoverlapping Magisteria, in Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives 737, 738-39 (Robert T. Pennock ed., 2001)
213. See Lawrence G. Sager, Justice in Plainclothes 86-95 (2004)
214. See, e.g., W. Va. State Bd. of Educ. v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624, 647-48 (1943) (Frankfurter, J., dissenting)
215. (quoting United States v. Butler, 297 U.S. 1, 79 (1936) (Stone, J., dissenting))
216. Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 652 (1996) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
217. See generally Barry Friedman, The Will of the People: How Public Opinion Has Influenced the Supreme Court and Shaped the Meaning of the Constitution (2009).
218. See Alexander M. Bickel, The Least Dangerous Branch: The Supreme Court at the Bar of Politics 127-32 (2d ed. 1986).
219. See Salazar v. Buono, 130 S. Ct. 1803, 1819-20 (2010).
220. see Pleasant Grove City v. Summum, 129 S. Ct. 1125, 1142 (2009)
221. see Buono, 130 S. Ct. at 1819.
222. Victoria Nourse, After the Reasonable Man: Getting Over the Subjectivity/ Objectivity Question, 11 New Crim. L. Rev. 33 (2008).
223. See Caroline Mala Corbin, Ceremonial Deism and the Reasonable Religious Outsider, 57 UCLA L. Rev. 1545 (2010).
224. 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(42)(A) (2006).
225. See, e.g., Crue v. Aiken, 370 F.3d 668, 674 (7th Cir. 2004)
226. United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, 546 (1996)
227. See Cass R. Sunstein, The Supreme Court 1995 Term-Foreword: Leaving Things Undecided, 110 Harv. L. Rev. 4, 75 (1996).
228. See Todd S. Purdum, Registry Laws Tar Sex-Crime Convicts with Broad Brush, N.Y. Times, July 1, 1997, at A1;
229. Paul Campos & Marilyn Wann, Fatties, It's Time to Fight Back: If You're Judged Obese, You're a Second-Class Citizen at Best, NYDailyNews. com (Mar. 8, 2010, 4:00 AM), http://www.nydailynews.com/opinions/2010/03/08/2010-03- 08-fatties-its-time-to-fight-back.html;
230. Noah Rosenberg, Heated Debate at Hearing on Smoking Ban in Parks, N.Y. Times City Room Blog (Oct. 14, 2010, 5:57 PM), http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes. com/2010/10/14/air-cleared-at-parkssmoking-ban-hearing/.
231. See National Sex Offender Public Website, U.S. Dep't of Justice, http://www.nsopw.gov (last visited Oct. 27, 2010).
232. See National Sex Offender Public Website, U.S. Dep't of Justice, http://www.nsopw.gov/Core/Conditions.aspx (last visited Oct. 27, 2010).
233. see Adam R. Pulver, An Imperfect Fit: Obesity, Public Health, and Disability Antidiscrimination Law, 41 Colum. J.L. & Soc. Probs. 365, 405-08, 410-14 (2008).
234. See Martin Lindstrom, Buy·ology: Truth and Lies About Why We Buy 9-16 (2008).
235. See Perry v. Schwarzenegger, 704 F. Supp. 2d 921, 997 (N.D. Cal. 2010).
236. Bd. of Trs. of Univ. of Ala. v. Garrett, 531 U.S. 356, 367 (2001)
237. See Perry, 704 F. Supp. 2d at 956-91.
238. See Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558, 577-78 (2003);
239. Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 632-33 (1996);
240. see also Jeremy B. Smith, Note, The Flaws of Rational Basis with Bite: Why the Supreme Court Should Acknowledge Its Application of Heightened Scrutiny to Classifications Based on Sexual Orientation, 73 Fordham L. Rev. 2769, 2770 (2005)
241. Steven P. Wieland, Note, Gambling, Greyhounds, and Gay Marriage: How the Iowa Supreme Court Can Use the Rational-Basis Test to Address Varnum v. Brien, 94 Iowa L. Rev. 413, 436-37 (2008)
242. See Ross Douthat, The Marriage Ideal, N.Y. Times, Aug. 9, 2010, at A19
243. cf. Nathan Oman, Why Conservatives Should Support Gay Marriage, Patheos (July 7, 2009), http://www.patheos.com/Resources/Additional-Resources/Why- Conservatives-Should-Support-Gay-Marriage-07072009.html
244. See Boddie v. Connecticut, 401 U.S. 371, 380-81 (1971).
245. See Lawrence, 539 U.S. at 590 (Scalia, J., dissenting)
246. See Andrew Sullivan, The Unique Quality of "Lifelong Heterosexual Monogamy," The Daily Dish, The Atlantic (Aug. 9, 2010), http://andrewsullivan.theatlantic.com/the-daily-dish/2010/08/ the-unique-quality-of-lifelong-heterosexualmonogamy.html