Doing the groundwork: State, local and judicial contributions to climate change law in Australia

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 25, Issue 5, 2008, Pages 360-379

  England, Philippa ^a  

^a GRIFFITH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84855546594     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (155)

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35. McGrath C, "Setting Climate Change Targets to Protect the Great Barrier Reef" (2007) 24 EPLJ 182 at 186.
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38. Environmental and Planning Assessment Act 1979 (NSW), s 79C; Planning and Environment Act 1987 (Vic), s 60.
39. Planning and Development Act 2007 (ACT), s 210; Integrated Planning Act 1997 (Qld), Sch 10 - Definition of Impact Assessment; Environmental Protection Act 1993 (SA), s 36; Environmental Management and Pollution Control Act 1994 (Tas), s 51; Planning Act 1992 (NT), s 51.
40. England P, Climate Change: What Are Local Governments Liable for? (Griffith University, 2007), http://www.griffith.edu.au/__data/assets/file/0007/29824/england-climate-change-local-government.pdf viewed 14 July 2008.
41. Smith and Shearman, n 5.
42. Gray v Minister for Planning (2006) 152 LGERA 258 at [145].
43. Gray v Minister for Planning (2006) 152 LGERA 258 at [126].
44. State Environmental Planning Policy (Mining, Petroleum Production and Extractive Industries) 2007 (NSW), cl 14(2).
45. Taralga Landscape Guardians Inc v Minister for Planning [2007] NSWLEC 59 at [74].
46. Department of Natural Resources and Water, Climate Smart Adaptation 2007-12: An Action Plan for Managing the Impacts of Climate Change (Queensland Government, 2007) p 11.
47. "National authorities should endeavour to promote the internalization of environmental costs and the use of economic instruments, taking into account the approach that the polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard to the public interest and without distorting international trade and investment": Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UNCED, 14/06/92, Doc A/CONF.151/26), Principle 16.
48. A plausible exception might be where the polluter, through lack of financial means or other constraints, has no other option than to pollute.
49. De Sadeleer N, Environmental Principles: From Political Slogans to Legal Rules (Oxford University Press, 2002) p 34.
50. Single European Act 1986, Art 130R(2) (new Article 174(2)).
51. National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development, n 7, "Guiding Principle No 6".
52. The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme, http://www.greenhousegas.nsw.gov.au/default.asp viewed 14 July 2008.
53. The Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme: Overview, http://www.greenhousegas.nsw.gov.au/overview/scheme_overview/overview.asp viewed 14 July 2008.
54. Department of Climate Change, About the ETS: Guiding Principles, http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/emissionstrading/about.html viewed 14 July 2008.
55. Productivity Commission, What Role for Policies to Supplement an Emissions Trading Scheme? (Submission to the Garnaut Climate Change Review, Commonwealth Government, 2008) p 12.
56. De Sadeleer, n 27, p 36.
57. NSW Government, Introduction to the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme (Greenhouse Gas Reduction Scheme, 2007), http://www.greenhousegas.nsw.gov.au/documents/syn91.asp viewed 14 July 2008, p 20.
58. Queensland Development Code, Sustainable Buildings Mandatory Part 4.1 (2008), http://www.dip.qld.gov.au/building/current-and-draft-parts.html viewed 14 July 2008.
59. Level 6 Water Restriction, Notice of a Commission Water Restriction under the Water Act 2000 (Qld), s 360ZD (commenced 23 November 2007).
60. Stern N, Stern Review Report on the Economics of Climate Change (HM Treasury, 2006), http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm viewed 14 July 2008, pp 1-2.
61. Including: ACT, Climate Change Strategy 2007-2025 (2007) at 21; Queensland, Climate Change Adaptation 2007-2012 (Climate Change Centre of Excellence, 2007) at 7; New South Wales Greenhouse Office, New South Wales Greenhouse Plan (2005) at 19; South Australia, Tackling Climate Change: South Australia's Greenhouse Strategy 2007-2020 (2007) at 1. See also, Council for the Australian Federation, Declaration on Climate Change (2007), http://www.dpc.vic.gov.au/CA256D800027B102/Lookup/CAFDeclarationonClimateChange/dollarfile/CAF%20Declaration%20on%20Climate%20Change.pdf viewed 14 July 2008, Preamble.
62. SMEC Australia, Climate Change Adaptation Actions for Local Government (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2007), http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/local-government.html viewed 14 July 2008, p 11.
63. On potential sources of legal liability see further, England, n 18.
64. McDonald J, "A Risky Climate for Decision-Making: The Liability of Development Authorities for Climate Change Impacts" (2007) 24 EPLJ 405.
65. Durrant N, "Professional Liability for Climate Affected Advice" (2007/2008) 13 Queensland Environment Practice Reporter 114.
66. In New South Wales, local governments are required to ensure their Local Environmental Plans make provision for adequate set backs in areas of coastal erosion risk and ocean based inundation in accordance with the South Coast Regional Planning Strategy (NSW). See further, Environmental Defender's Office (NSW), Coastal Councils and Planning for Climate Change (Sydney Coastal Councils Group Inc, 2008). See also, State Costal Planning Policy No 2.6 (WA), Sch 1, s D.3 - "Factors to be Considered in Calculating Coastal Processes Setback: Distance to Allow For Seal Level Change".
67. Examples described in SMEC Australia, n 40, pp 51-53. Councils cited include: Port Adelaide-Enfield Council (SA); Ku-ringai Council (NSW); City of Mandurah (WA).
68. Scott J, Hayward L and Joyce A, "Climate Change Adaptation - Socialising the Science" (2008) 14 LGLJ 52.
69. Department of Natural Resources and Water, n 24, p 11, Principles 2 and 3.
70. A carbon constrained future (or low carbon economy) is a future in which oil, coal and other fuels that emit greenhouse gases are more limited in supply and ever more costly to utilise. It is now becoming widely recognised that transitioning our industrial society towards a low carbon economy is the only long-term solution that can reduce our vulnerability to the increasing cost of carbon.
71. For details of urban containment policies in Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane, see their respective regional/metropolitan planning documents - Department of Planning, City of Cities: A Plan for Sydney's Future (New South Wales Government, 2005); Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne 2030 (Victorian Government, 2002); Office of Urban Management, South East Queensland Regional Plan 2005-2026 (Queensland Government, 2005). For a survey of local government initiatives towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions, see Cities for Climate Protection (CCP), Local Government Action on Climate Change: CCP Australia Measures Evaluation Report (2007) and the CCP website, http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/local/ccp viewed 14 July 2008.
72. BASIX, About BASIX, http://www.basix.nsw.gov.au/information/about.jsp viewed 14 July 2008.
73. BASIX, n 46.
74. BASIX, n 46.
75. Australian Building Codes Board, Energy Effïciency Provisions for Housing, http://www.abcb.gov.au/go/eehousing_p1 viewed 14 July 2008. The revised provisions have been adopted in the Australian Capital Territory, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia.
76. Rossetto L, "Sustainable Homes: Recent Developments in Australia" (2007) 13 LGLJ 43 at 50.
77. Building Code of Australia (2005), Vol 2, Practice Notes, cl Vic 1.2.2(a)(ii). See also, Building Commission, Residential Sustainability Measures (2007), Practice Notes, http://www.sustainability.vic.gov.au/resources/documents/Practice_note_2007.pdf viewed 14 July 2008; Wilkenfield and Associates, Water Saving Requirements for New Residential Buildings in Victoria: Options for Flexible Compliance (Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2006), http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/CA256F310024B628/0/624CE956BC9D9D89CA2572DD002A1812/dollarFile/Water+savings+options+for+new+residential+buildings+in+Victoria+June+2006.pdf viewed 14 July 2008.
78. Queensland Development Code, n 36.
79. Environmental and Planning Assessment Act 1979 (NSW), s 5; Planning and Environment Act 1987 (Vic), s 4(1); Planning and Development Act 2007 (ACT), s 9; Integrated Planning Act 1997 (Qld), s 1.2.3(1); Development Act 1993 (SA), s 3. Note also, the NSESD states, "The global dimension of environmental impacts of actions and policies should be recognised and considered": National Strategy for Ecologically Sustainable Development, n 7, "Guiding Principle No 3".
80. Parkes v Byron Shire Council [2004] NSWLEC 92; Northcape Properties Pty Ltd v District Council of Yorke Peninsula [2008] SASC 57; Falkner v Gisborne DC [1995] NZRMA 462.
81. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, n 25, Principle 15.
82. Peel J, The Precautionary Principle in Practice (Federation Press, 2005).
83. Harding R and Fisher E, Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Federation Press, 1999).
84. Freestone D, "The Precautionary Principle" in Churchill and Freestone, n 1.
85. De Sadeleer N, "The Precautionary Principle" in De Sadeleer, n 27, pp 91-226.
86. Freestone D and Hey E (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law (Kluwer, 1995).
87. Barton C, "The Status of the Precautionary Principle in Australia: Its Emergence in Legislation and as a Common Law Doctrine" (1998) 22 Harvard Environmental Law Review 509.
88. Harding R and Fisher E (eds), Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Federation Press, 1999).
89. Wyman L, "Acceptance of the Precautionary Principle - Australian v International Decision-Makers" (2001) 18 EPLJ 395.
90. Stein P, "Are Decision-Makers too Cautious with the Precautionary Principle?" (2000) 17 EPLJ 3.
91. Beck U, Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity (Sage Publications, 1992).
92. Giddens A, Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age (Polity, 1990).
93. Luhmann N, Risk: A Sociological Theory, (De Grutyer, 1991).
94. De Sadeleer, n 27, p 152.
95. The Curative Model includes laws aiming to "eliminate the deleterious effects of over exploitation, by decontaminating, re-introducing, cleaning up, restoring" the health of the environment after its exploitation: De Sadeleer, n 27, p 15.
96. The Preventive Model includes laws to ensure that "problems be prevented from occurring in the first place and, once they have occurred, be prevented from spreading": De Sadeleer, n 27, p 16.
97. Peel, n 55, p 40.
98. Joint Transport Research Centre, Biofuels: Linking Support to Performance: Summary and Conclusions (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/International Transport Forum, 2007) p 1.
99. Fisher D, "Intrinsic Environmental Values" in Fisher D (ed), Australian Environmental Law (Lawbook, 2003) pp 43-45.
100. See for instance, endorsement of the principle in the UN Convention on Climate Change (1992), Art 3: "The Parties should take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures, taking into account that policies and measures to deal with climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global benefits at the lowest possible cost."
101. Peel, n 55, p 197. See also, Planning Workshop Ltd v Pittwater Council [1996] NSWLEC 211; Davfast v Ballina Shire Council [2000] NSWLEC 128, for further endorsement of this approach.
102. Nicholls v Director-General of National Parks & Wildlife (1994) 84 LGERA 397; Friends of Hichinbrook Society Inc v Minister for Environment (No 2) (1997) 69 FCR 28; Lend Lease Development Pty Ltd v Manly City Council [1998] NSWLEC 136.
103. Peel, n 55, pp 203-205.
104. Tuna Boat Owners Assn (SA) Inc v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 77 SASR 369; R v Resource Planning & Development Commission; Ex p Aquatus Pty Ltd (1998) 100 LGERA 1; St Ives Development Pty Ltd v City of Mandurah [2003] WATPAT 5; North Queensland Conservation Council v Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority [2000] AATA 925.
105. For a fuller discussion of these issues see further, Peel, n 55, pp 203-205; Stein, n 55 at 12-16; Wyman, n 55 at 397-402; Barton, n 55 at 535-542.
106. Tuna Boat Owners Assn of (SA) Inc v Development Assessment Commission (2000) 77 SASR 369; Booth v Bosworth (2001) 114 FCR 39. For further discussions of the reverse burden of proof, see Barton, n 55 at 519-520.
107. Preston B, The Role of the Judiciary in Promoting Sustainable Development: The Experience of Asia and the Pacific (Paper Presented to the Kenya National Judicial Colloquium on Environmental Law, Mombasa, 10-13 January 2006), http://www.lawlink.nsw.gov.au/lawlink/lec/ll_lec.nsf/vwFiles/Speech_17Apr06_Preston.pdf/dollarfile/Speech_17Apr06_Preston.pdf viewed 14 July 2008, at 39.
108. O'Riordan T and Cameron J, "The History and Contemporary Significance of the Precautionary Principle" in O'Riordan T and Cameron J (eds), Interpreting the Precautionary Principle (Earthscan Publications, 1994) pp 15-16.
109. Walker v Minister for Planning [2007] NSWLEC 741 at [166] per Biscoe J.
110. Hain v Glen Eira [2006] VCAT 2493; Taralga Landscape Guardians Inc v Minister for Planning and RES Southern Cross Pty Ltd [2007] NSWLEC 59; Jackson Teece v Waverly Council [2007] NSWLEC 69; 14 Regent Street Pty Ltd v Hobart City Council [2005] TASRMPAT 26.
111. O'Hart A, Climate Change in Planning Decisions and Environmental Impact Assessment: Recent Cases (Seminar delivered to the Planning Institute of Australia, April 2007).
112. See for instance, Department of Natural Resources and Water, n 24, p 8; Government of South Australia, Tackling Climate Change: South Australia's Greenhouse Strategy 2007-2020 (2007) p 16; NSW Greenhouse Office, NSW Greenhouse Plan (2005) p 24; Allen Consulting, Climate Change: Risk and Vulnerability (Report to the Australian Greenhouse Office, 2005) p ix - Executive Summary.
113. Department of Natural Resources and Water, n 24, pp 19-27.
114. SMEC Australia, n 40, p 9.
115. Local Government Assn of Queensland, Adapting to Climate Change: A Queensland Local Government Guide (LGAQ Inc, 2007) p 8.
116. Australian Greenhouse Office, National Climate Change Adaptation Framework (Council of Australian Governments, 2007), http://www.coag.gov.au/meetings/130407/docs/national_climate_change_adaption_framework.pdf viewed 14 July 2008, p 4.
117. SMEC Australia, n 40.
118. Climate Change Impacts & Risk Management - A Guide for Business and Government (Australian Greenhouse Office, 2006), http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/risk-management.html viewed 14 July 2008.
119. SMEC Australia, n 40, p 18.
120. SMEC Australia, n 40, pp 11, 15.
121. Local Government Assn of Queensland, n 73.
122. Local Adaptation Pathways Program, for details see Department of Climate Change, http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/localgovernment/lapp.html viewed 14 July 2008.
123. UNFCCC, n 16, Art 3.1 - Principles.
124. Borione D and Ripert J, "Exercising Common But Differentiated Responsibility" in Mintzer I and Leonard J (eds), Negotiating Climate Change: The Inside Story of the Rio Convention (Cambridge University Press, 1994).
125. Read P, Responding to Global Warming: The Technology, Economics and Politics of Sustainable Energy (Zed Books, 1994).
126. Council for the Australia Federation, Climate Change Declaration (CAF, 2007), http://www.dpc.vic.gov.au/CA256D800027B102/Lookup/CAFDeclarationonClimateChange/dollarfile/CAF%20Declaration%20on%20Climate%20Change.pdf viewed 14 July 2008.
127. Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 (SA), s 6.
128. Climate Change and Greenhouse Emissions Reduction Act 2007 (SA), ss 9, 11.
129. For instance, in 2007, the NSW Greenhouse Office merged into the new Department of Environment and Climate Change, a new Office of Climate Change was established in the Department of Premier and Cabinet (Vic) and, in Queensland, the Queensland Climate Change Centre of Excellence was established.
130. See also, New South Wales Greenhouse Office, NSW Greenhouse Plan (2005), Pt C - Actions to be Taken.
131. For a review of some current projects, see Cities for Climate Protection, n 45.
132. This standard, which represents world leadership in office building design, was awarded to Council House 2 by the Green Building Council of Australia in April 2005.
133. City of Melbourne, CH2 Setting a New World Standard in Green Building Design, http://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/info.cfm?top=171&pg=1933 viewed 14 July 2008.
134. Cities for Climate Protection, n 45, p 3.
135. Bonyhady and Christoff, n 2, p 4. The Mount Alexander and Newcastle local governments have been particularly active in pursuing innovative greenhouse gas abatement strategies. On action by Mount Alexander Shire Council, see Australian Local Governments Assn and National Economics, State of the Regions Report 2007-2008 (2007) pp 131-141.
136. SMEC Australia, n 40.
137. Australian Greenhouse Office, n 73, p 4.
138. Water Amendment Regulation (No 6) 2006 (Qld).
139. Amendment Regulation (No 6) 2006 (Qld), Sch 10B.
140. Amendment Regulation (No 6) 2006 (Qld), Sch 10B.
141. Brisbane City Council, Rebates, http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCC:BASE::pc=PC_2291 viewed 14 July 2008.
142. Queensland Government, Home and Garden WaterWise Rebates Scheme, http://www.nrw.qld.gov.au/water/saverscheme/rebate_schemes.html viewed 14 July 2008.
143. As of March 2008 the rainwater tank rebate is only available for a new rainwater tank, with a minimum capacity of 3,000 litres and internally plumbed to either a laundry cold water tap or toilet suite.
144. Newman C, The Lord Mayor's Budget Speech 2007, http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/BCCWR/about_council/documents/BUDGET_MINUTES_13JUNE2007.PDF?xml=/BCC:PDFHITXML:1267556434:svDocNum=1 viewed 28 July 2008, p 32.
145. Department of Natural Resources and Water, n 24, p 11 - Principle 4.
146. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Greenhouse Challenge Plus (2007), http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/challenge viewed 14 July 2008.
147. Australian Greenhouse Office, Annual Report 1999-2000 (2000).
148. Sullivan R, "Greenhouse Challenge Plus: A New Departure or More of the Same?" (2006) 23 EPLJ 60 at 64.
149. Parker C, "The Greenhouse Challenge: Trivial Pursuit?" (1999) 16 EPLJ 63.
150. Bubna-Litic K, "Climate Change and Corporate Social Responsibility: The Intersection of Corporate and Environmental Law" (2007) 24 EPLJ 253.
151. Sullivan, n 100 at 71-73.
152. Cities for Climate Protection, n 45, p 3.
153. Cities for Climate Protection, n 45, p 18.
154. UNFCCC, n 16, Art 3(1) and (3).
155. Flannery T, We Are the Weather Makers (Text Publishing, 2006).