Climate change litigation actions for future generations

Environmental and Planning Law Journal

Volumn 25, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 115-135

  Horn, Laura ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; FUTURE PROSPECT; THEORETICAL STUDY; UNITED NATIONS FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE;

EID: 47249127229     PISSN: 0813300X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (227)

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6. See the Rio Declaration (1992) 31 ILM 874, Principle 3.
7. Dernbach JC, "Sustainable Development as a Framework for National Governance" (1998) 49 Case Western Law Review 1 at 39 states when referring to Principle 3, "Although ambiguous, the statement can be read to mean that goals for economic development, social development, peace and security, and natural resources protection should be met for both present and future generations."
8. Sands P, "Protecting Future Generations: Precedents and Practicalities" in Agius et al (eds), Future Generations and International Law (London: Earthscan Publications, 1998) p 86 states: "It can be concluded that all states now accept the general principle that the activities of the present generations are limited by the obligation to take into account and safeguard the developmental and environmental needs of future generations."
9. Brown Weiss E, In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law Common Patrimony, and Intergenerational Equity (New York: The United Nations University, Transnational Publishers, Inc, 1989).
10. Brown Weiss states at 24-25, "The theory of intergenerational equity calls for a minimum level of equality among generations. Since each generation is entitled to inherit a planet and cultural resource base at least as good as that of previous generations."
11. Harding et al, n 5, p 10.
12. Harding et al, n 5, p 11.
13. Redgwell C, "Intergenerational Equity and Global Warming" in Churchill R and Freestone D (eds), International Law and Global Climate Change (London: Graham & Trotman, 1991) p 42.
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15. Brown Weiss, n 5, pp 22-24.
16. Brown Weiss, n 9, p 500.
17. Nagy, "Speaking Without a Voice" in Agius et al (eds), n 5, p 54.
18. Nagy, n 12, p 54.
19. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 96.
20. D'Amato A, "What Obligation Does Our Generation Owe the Next? An Approach to Global Environmental Responsibility" (1990) 84 American Journal of International Law 190;
21. See Brown Weiss E, "Our Rights and Obligations to Future Generations for the Environment" (1990) 84 American Journal of International Law 198;
22. and Gündling L, "Our Responsibility to Future Generations" (1990) 84 American Journal of International Law 207. (D'Amato A, Brown Weiss E and Gündling L write separately in one article).
23. Ariansen in Agius et al, (eds), n 5, p 17.
24. United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 217A (III).
25. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 38.
26. D'Amato et al, n 15, p 195.
27. Supanich GP, "The Legal Basis of Intergenerational Responsibility: An Alternative View - The Sense of Intergenerational identity" (1993) Yearbook of International Law 94 at 97.
28. See Redgwell C, Intergenerational Trusts and Environmental Protection (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1999) p 97.
29. Supanich, n 19, p 96.
30. See also Barresi P, "Beyond Fairness to Future Generations: An Intragenerational Alternative to Intergenerational Equity in the International Environmental Arena" (1997) 11 (1) Tulane Environmental Law Journal 59 at 77.
31. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 96.
32. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 125.
33. Experts Group on Environmental Law of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development: Legal Principles and Recommendations (London: Graham & Trotman, 1986) p 16.
34. Experts Group on Environmental Law of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), n 23 p 16.
35. "Goa Guidelines on Intergenerational Equity" (1988) 18 Environmental Policy and Law 190.
36. Supanich GP, "The Legal Basis of Intergenerational Responsibility: An Alternative View - The Sense of Intergenerational Identity" (1993) Yearbook of International Law 94 at 98.
37. "Developments in the Law: International Environmental Law" (1991) 104 Harvard Law Review 1484 at 1541.
38. Redgwell, n 8, p 46-4;
39. See Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development (3rd ed, IUCN Commission on Environmental Law, 2004) at 41. "Although it is difficult to predict with precision the aspirations of future generations, the basic human needs and values expressed in the 1966 United Nations Covenants on Human Rights must be taken as the minimum requirements."
40. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4.
41. Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79; (1992) 31 ILM 818 (entered into force 29 December 1993).
42. Experts Group on Environmental Law of the World Commission on Environment and Development, n 23 p 42, Art 2.
43. Porras IM, "The Rio Declaration: A New Basis for International Cooperation" in Sands (ed), Greening International Law (London: Earthscan Publications Ltd, 1993) p 20, at 31.
44. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 86.
45. Redgwell, n 8, pp 44-45.
46. Brown Weiss, n 9, p 500.
47. See Dawkins R, The Selfish Gene (USA: Oxford University Press, 1989).
48. D'Amato et al, n 15, p 197.
49. Stone CD, "Should Trees Have Standing? Revisited: How Far Will Law and Morals Reach? A Pluralist Perspective" (1985)
50. Southern California Law Review 1 at 52;
51. and see Stone CD, Earth and Other Ethics (New York: Harper & Row, 1987) p 98.
52. See Supanich, n 19, p 101.
53. D'Amato et al, n 15, p 199.
54. See Redgwell, n 19, pp 97-98.
55. D'Amato et al, n 15, p 199, footnote no 3.
56. Bosselmann K, When Two Worlds Collide: Society and Ecology (New Zealand: RSVP Publishing Co Ltd, 1995) pp 136-143.
57. Bosselmann, n 41, pp, 149, 177.
58. Bosselmann, "Governing the Global Commons: The Ecocenttic Approach to International Environmental Law" in Prieur M, Doumbé-Billé S, Droit de l'environnement et Développentent Durable (Limoges: Presses Universitairus de Limoges, 1994) pp 99-100
59. See Taylor P, An Ecological Approach to International Law: Responding to the Challenges of Climate Change (London: Routledge, 1998) pp 41-42.
60. Bosselmann, n 41, pp. 246-247.
61. Bosselmann, "Ecological Justice and Law" in Richardson B, and Wood S, Environmental Law for Sustainability: A Reader (Oregon: Hart Publishing, 2006) p 152.
62. Bosselmann, n 41, p 278.
63. O'Linder DO, "Are All Species Created Equal and Other Questions Shaping Wildlife Law" (1988) 12 Harvard Environmental Law Review 157.
64. Supanich, n 19, pp 96-98
65. and D'Amato A, "Do We Owe a Duty to Future Generations to Preserve the Global Environment?" in D'Amato et al, n 15, p 195.
66. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 18.
67. See Redgwell C, n 19, p 100.
68. Stone, "Defending the Global Commons" in Sands (ed), n 32, p 40.
69. Stone CD, The Gnat is Older than Man: Global Environment and Human Agenda (New Jersey, Princeton University Press, 1993) p 84.
70. See also Nagy et al (eds), n 5, p 62.
71. Stone, "Defending the Global Commons" in Sands (ed), n 32, pp 39-41.
72. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 30.
73. For example, CITES, 1973, 993 UNTS 243;
74. Convention for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution, (1976) 15 ELM 290;
75. Association of South East Asian Nations Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, (1985) 15 EPL 64.
76. Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development, n 28.
77. The International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) (16 Dec 1966)
78. and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) (16 Dec 1966).
79. Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development, n 28, p 41.
80. Re Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174. Note: This is a case where a class action was brought on behalf of children representing their generation as well as generations unborn.
81. See Nanda VP and William KR, "The Public Trust Doctrine: A Viable Approach to International Environmental Protection" (1976) 5 Ecology Law Quarterly 291.
82. See also Barresi, n 20, p 79 who argues in favour of a theoretical foundation to achieve intergenerational equity based upon a contract among the members of the present generation.
83. Sax J, "The Public Trust Doctrine in Natural Resource Law: Effective Judicial Intervention" (1970) 68 Michigan Law Review 471 at 474.
84. For example, conventions concerning the protection of the ozone layer and the atmosphere, the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1990) 26 ILM 537;
85. Adjustments and Amendments to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1990) 29 ILM 537;
86. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change n 4;
87. the Kyoto Protocol (1998) 32 ILM 22.
88. Nanda and William, n 60, p 307.
89. Bilderbeek S (ed), Biodiversity and International Law: The Effectiveness of International Environmental Law (Amsterdam: IOS Press, 1992), p 178. Some countries already permit NGOs to represent the public interest by granting them legal standing through the adoption of legislation.
90. Antarctic Treaty (Washington) (1959) 402 UNTS 71.
91. See Redgwell, n 19, p 183.
92. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4.
93. Report of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, UN Doc E/73/ILA/14 (1972); (1972) 11 ILM 1416, 1419 (Stockholm Declaration).
94. Article 3 and the preamble to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4.
95. Principle 7 of the Rio Declaration, n 5.
96. Reed SW, "The Public Trust Doctrine: Is It Amphibious" [1986] Vol 1 Environmental Law and Litigation 107 at 108.
97. See Redgwell, n 19, pp 32-68.
98. Nanda and William, n 60, p 315.
99. The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972) 11 ILM 1358 operates in a similar way, to a limited extent, but the Convention is based upon international cooperation and assistance to support States in the conservation of their heritage. (Art 7).
100. Smith J and Shearman D, Climate Change Litigation (Presidian Legal Publications, Adelaide, 2006) p 44.
101. Brown Weiss, n 9, p 507.
102. Brown Weiss, p 499, pp 504-508.
103. Brown Weiss, p 506, footnote 56.
104. Brown Weiss, pp 508-509.
105. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 23.
106. Article 140 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982) 21 ILM 1261 (entered into force 16 November 1994).
107. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4:
108. see Art 3 and the preamble.
109. Rio Declaration (1992) 31 ILM 874, n 5.
110. Convention on Biological Diversity, opened for signature 5 June 1992, 1760 UNTS 79, (1992) 31 ILM 818 (entered into force 29 December 1993), n 30.
111. Brown Weiss, n 9, pp 540-541.
112. Redgwell, n 8, p 47, "The general principles of intergenerational equity provide the framework and the origin of obligations, which need to be concretised as specific treaty obligations and as rules of customary international law."
113. Malhotra A, "A Commentary on the Status of Future Generations as a Subject of International Law" in Agius et al (eds), n 5, p 39.
114. Malhotra states at 42: "Future generations cannot presently be regarded sticto sensu as a subject of international law; yet, given the rapid evolution of international law in recent decades, the possibility remains that they may well acquire such recognition at some future date."
115. See Sands in Agius et al (eds), n 5, p 86.
116. Redgwell, n 19, p 123.
117. See also the Forest Principles, (1992) 31 ILM 881 2(b), "Forest resources and forest lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual needs of present and future generations."
118. Stockholm Declaration, n 68.
119. World Charter for Nature, (1983) 22 ILM 455.
120. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, preamble, at [1].
121. Porras IM, "The Rio Declaration: A New Basis for International Cooperation" in Sands, n 32, p 28.
122. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 38.
123. See the application of these principles to fresh water resources in Brown Weiss E, "Intergenerational Fairness for Freshwater Resources" (1995) 25 Environmental Policy and Law 231 at 234.
124. Brown Weiss, n 9. p 564.
125. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4.
126. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 10.
127. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 10(2)(a).
128. Unitedn Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 10(2)(b).
129. See the Kyoto Protocol, Art 18, n 62, which states, "The Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Protocol shall, at its first session, approve appropriate and effective procedures and mechanisms to determine and address cases of non-compliance."
130. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 13.
131. The Kyoto Protocol Art 18 n 62
132. There are also a bureau and a plenary body associated with the Compliance Committee.
133. Yamin F and Depledge J, The international Climate Change Regime: A Guide to Rules Institutions and Procedures (New York: Cambridge University Press 2004) p 386.
134. The Kyoto Protocol Arts 6, 12, 17 n 62.
135. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 5.
136. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 9.
137. Brown Weiss, n 5, pp 154-155.
138. Brown Weiss, n 5, pp 154-155.
139. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, n 4, Art 11; note this arrangement is subject to the provisions in the Convention: see Art 21.
140. Werksman JD, "Greening Bretton Woods" in Sands, n 32, p 83.
141. http://www.gefweb.org/interior.aspx?id=50 (viewed 25 May 2007).
142. http://www.gefweb.org/interior.aspx?id=264&ekmensel= c580fa7b_48_126_264_1 (viewed 25 May 2007).
143. Johnson S, "Evolving Perceptions: Legal Aspects of the Protection of the Environment in Areas Not Subject to National Jurisdiction" (Global Commons) in Al-Nauimi N, Meese R (eds), International Legal Issues Arising Under the United Nations Decade of International Law (The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1995) pp 195-196.
144. The Kyoto Protocol, Art 3 and Annex B, n 62. According to Art 3, the aim is to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases "by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012."
145. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Second Assessment Synthesis of Scienfific Technical Information Relevant to Interpreting Art 2 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sarsyn.htm, viewed 11 May 2007) at 15 [4.6]: "Carbon cycle models show that immediate stabilisation of the concentration of carbon dioxide at its present level could only be achieved through an immediate reduction in its emissions of 50-70% and further reductions thereafter."
146. IPCC 2007 Summary for Policymakers, In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 12 http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4-wg1-spm.pdf (viewed 5 March 2008).
147. IPCC Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability Working Group II Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report Summary for Policy Makers (http://www.ipcc.ch/SPMI3apr07.pdf, viewed 11 May 2007) p 5.
148. IPCC, n 109 p 7.
149. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, Art 34.
150. Birnie PIW and Boyle AE, International Law and the Environment (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2002) p 221.
151. Postiglione A, "An International Court for the Environment?" (1993) 23 Environmental Policy and Law 73 at 76.
152. Barcelona Traction Case, Light and Power Co Ltd (Belgium-Spain) (Second Phase) ICJ Rep (1970) 3.
153. Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) (Judgment) (1998) 37 ILM 162 at 216.
154. Case Concerning the Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v Slovakia) (Judgment) (1998) 37 ILM 162 at 217.
155. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 197.
156. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 197.
157. Sands P, Principles of International Environmental Law Vo1 1 (UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003) p 158.
158. The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (1999) 38 ILM 517. Article 9(3) requires parties to ensure members of the public have access to the courts to challenge breaches of national laws relating to the environment.
159. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 223;
160. see the Statute of the International Court of Justice, Art 34(1).
161. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 222.
162. A seven-member Chamber for Environmental Matters was set up under the Statute of the International Court of Justice, Art 26(1). International Court of Justice, "Constitution of a Chamber of the Court for Environmental Matters" Communique No 93/20, 19 July 1993. "Chamber for Environmental Matters" (1993) 23 Environmental Policy and Law 243.
163. Rest A, "Enhanced Implementation of the Biological Diversity Convention by Judicial Control" (1999) 29 Environmental Policy and Law 32 at 38.
164. Postiglione, n 119, pp 73-78;
165. Rest, n 126, p 37.
166. Rest suggests that an international environmental court could be established which could give standing to NGOs or individual or national courts. See Tolentino A, "The Proposed Interqational Court of the Environment" paper presented at the Southeast Asian Justices' Symposium: The Law on Sustainable Development 4-7 March 1999, Manila, Philippines, sponsored by the Supreme Court of the Philippines, UNDP and UNEP.
167. Postiglione, n 119, p 77.
168. Rest A, "New Legal Instruments for Environmental Prevention, Control and Restoration in Public International Law" (1993) 23 Environmental Policy and Law 260 at 269-270.
169. Rest, n 133, at 270;
170. Postiglione A, "An International Court for the Environment?" (1993) 23 Environmental Policy and Law 73 at 78.
171. Rest, n 133, p 270.
172. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 45.
173. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 45.
174. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 50.
175. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 95.
176. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 99.
177. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 101.
178. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 109.
179. Brown Weiss, n 5, pp 120-121.
180. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 111.
181. Stone, "Should Trees Have Standing? Revisited", n 37, pp 19-20.
182. Stone, "Should Trees Have Standing? Revisited", n 37, pp 22-25.
183. Stone, "Should Trees Have Standing? Revisited", n 37, p 27.
184. Stone, "Should Trees Have Standing? Revisited", n 37, p 31.
185. Stone, Earth and Other Ethics, n 37, p 60.
186. Stone, Earth and Other Ethics, n 37, p 91.
187. Stone, "Defending the Global Commons" in Sands (ed), n 32, p 40.
188. Rio Declaration, Principle 21, n 5.
189. Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), UN Doc A/CONF. 151/26 (1992) [25.2]
190. and see chapter 25.
191. Stone, Earth and Other Ethics, n 37, p 86.
192. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 197.
193. Birnie and Boyle, n 118, p 197.
194. Re Minors Oposav Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174, n 59.
195. Re Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174 at 180, n 59.
196. Re Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174 at 180, n 59.
197. Re Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174 at 185, n 59,
198. Re Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174 at 187, n 59; Section 16, Art II of the 1987 Constitution.
199. Re Minors Oposav Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (1994) 33 ILM 174 at 187-188, n 59.
200. Rest A, "Implementing the Principles of Intergenerational Equity and Responsibility" (1994) 24 Environmental Policy and Law 314 at 316.
201. Rest, n 163, at 317.
202. Nagy, n 12, p 180.
203. Rest, n 163, p 317.
204. Redgwell, n 19, pp 181-182. Redgwell states: "This decision of the Philippines Supreme Court demonstrates the continued vitality of the trust concept, and of concerns for future generations, in motivating challenge to administrative and executive action. This is reminiscent of the function of public trust doctrine as it has evolved in the United States."
205. Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development, n 28, p 55 (see n 84).
206. For example, the African Charter of Human Rights (1982) 21 ILM 59, Art 24; The Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (1989) 28 ILM 161, Art 11.
207. Clean Air Act 42 USCS.
208. See Grossman DA, "Warming Up To A Not-So-Radical Idea: Tort-Based Climate Change Litigation" (2003) 28 Columbia Journal of Environmental Law 1.
209. Massachusetts v Environmental Protection Agency 127 S Ct 1438 (2007) at [1453].
210. Massachusetts v Environmental Protection Agency 127 S Ct 1438 (2007) at [1453].
211. Massachusetts v Environmental Protection Agency 127 S Ct 1438 (2007) at [1456].
212. Massachusetts v Environmental Protection Agency 127 S Ct 1438 (2007) at [1458].
213. Stockholm Declaration (1972) 11 ILM 1416, 1419, n 68.
214. World Charter for Nature, n 89.
215. Rio Declaration (1992) 31 ILM 874, n 5, [23].
216. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) 31 ILM 849.
217. Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 31 ILM 818.
218. Draft International Covenant on Environment and Development, n 28.
219. Sands P, "Protecting Future Generations: Precedents and Practicalities" in Agius et al, n 5, p 89.
220. See Malhotra in Agius et al (eds), n 5, p 49, who also promotes the usefulness of enabling NGOs to act as guardians for future generations.
221. Sands, n 181.
222. The Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (1999) 38 ILM 517, n 122, could also enable better representation of the interests of the public by promoting access to justice and public participation in environmental decision making in the national legal systems of parties to the convention. See Arts 6, 9.
223. Brown Weiss E, "Environmental Equity: The Imperative for the Twenty-first Century" in Lang W (ed), Sustainable Development and International Law (London: Graham & Trotman Ltd 1995) p 22.
224. See Maggio GF, "Inter/intra-generational Equity: Current Applications under International Law for Promoting the Sustainable Development of Natural Resources" (1997) 4 Buffalo Environmental Law Journal 161 at 185-186.
225. Horn L, "Globalization, Sustainable Development and the Common Concern of Humankind" (2007) 7 Macquarie Law Journal 1 at 3-6.
226. Brown Weiss, n 5, p 86.
227. Bilderbeek, n 64, p 88.