Evolutionary changes in plant reproductive traits following habitat fragmentation and their consequences for population fitness

Journal of Ecology

Volumn 100, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 76-87

  Jacquemyn, Hans ^a   de Meester, Luc ^a   Jongejans, Eelke ^b   Honnay, Olivier ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

^b RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Dispersal; Habitat fragmentation; Mating system; Nectar; Phenotypic variation; Population dynamics; Selection

Indexed keywords

DISPERSAL; EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY; FITNESS; FLOWER; GENETIC DRIFT; GENETIC MARKER; GENETIC VARIATION; HABITAT FRAGMENTATION; HERITABILITY; INBREEDING DEPRESSION; LIFE HISTORY TRAIT; NATURAL SELECTION; NECTAR; PHENOTYPE; REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY;

EID: 83455260171     PISSN: 00220477     EISSN: 13652745     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01919.x     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Aguilar, R., Ashworth, L., Galetto, L. & Aizen, M.A. (2006) Plant reproductive susceptibility to habitat fragmentation: review and synthesis through a meta-analysis. Ecology Letters, 9, 968-980.
2. Aguilar, R., Quesada, M., Ashworth, L., Herrerias-Diego, Y. & Lobo, J. (2008) Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation in plant populations: susceptible signals in plant traits and methodological approaches. Molecular Ecology, 17, 5177-5188.
3. Aizen, M.A. & Feinsinger, P. (1994) Habitat fragmentation, native insect pollinators, and feral honey bees in Argentine Chaco Serrano. Ecological Applications, 4, 378-392.
4. Angeloni, F., Ouborg, N.J. & Leimu, R. (2011) Meta-analysis on the association of population size and life history with inbreeding depression in plants. Biological Conservation, 144, 35-43.
5. Antonovics, J. (1992) Towards community genetics. Plant Resistance to Herbivores and Pathogens: Ecology, Evolution and Genetics (eds R.S. Frit & E.L. Simms), pp. 426-450. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
6. Ashman, T.L., Knight, T.M., Steets, J.A., Amarasekare, P., Burd, M., Campbell, D.R., Dudash, M.R., Johnston, M.O., Mazer, S.J., Mitchell, R.J., Morgan, M.T. & Wilson, W.G. (2004) Pollen limitation of plant reproduction: ecological and evolutionary causes and consequences. Ecology, 85, 2408-2421.
7. Bailey, J.K., Schweitzer, J.A., Koricheva, J., Madritch, M.D., LeRoy, C.J., Rehill, B.J., Bangert, R.K., Fisher, D.G., Allen, G. & Whitham, T.G. (2009) From genes to ecosystems: synthesizing the effects of plant genetic factors across systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B-Biological Sciences, 364, 1607-1616.
8. Baker, H.G. (1977) Non-sugar chemical constituents of nectar. Apidologie, 8, 349-356.
9. Baker, H.G. & Baker, I. (1975) Nectar constitution and pollinator plant co-evolution. Co-evolution of Animals and Plants (eds L.E. Gilbert & P.H. Raven), pp. 100-140. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX.
10. Barrett, S.C.H., Harder, L.D. & Worley, A.C. (1996) The comparative biology of pollination and mating in flowering plants. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B-Biological Sciences, 351, 1271-1280.
11. Barrett, S.C.H., Ness, R.W. & Vallejo-Marín, M. (2009) Evolutionary pathways to self-fertilization in a tristylous plant species. New Phytologist, 183, 546-556.
12. Barrett, S.C.H. & Shore, J.S. (1987) Variation and evolution of breeding systems in the Turneria ulmifolia L. complex (Turneraceae). Evolution, 41, 340-354.
13. Biesmeijer, J.C., Roberts, P.M., Reemer, M., Ohlemüller, R., Edwards, M., Peeters, T., Schafferrs, A.P., Potts, S.G., Kleukers, R., Thomas, C.D., Settele, J. & Kunin, W.E. (2006) Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science, 313, 351-354.
14. Bone, E. & Farres, A. (2001) Trends and rates of microevolution in plants. Genetica, 112-113, 165-182.
15. Booth, R.E. & Grime, J.P. (2003) Effects of genetic impoverishment on plant community diversity. Journal of Ecology, 91, 721-730.
16. Broadhurst, L. & Young, A. (2007) Seeing the wood and the trees - predicting the future for fragmented plant populations in Australian landscapes. Australian Journal of Botany, 55, 250-260.
17. Brys, R. & Jacquemyn, H. (2011) Effects of human-mediated pollinator impoverishment on floral traits and mating patterns in a short-lived herb: an experimental approach. Functional Ecology, doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2011.01923.x.
18. Cagnolo, L., Valladares, G., Salvo, A., Cabido, M. & Zak, M. (2009) Habitat fragmentation and species loss across three interacting trophic levels: effects of life-history and food-web traits. Conservation Biology, 23, 1167-1175.
19. Canto, A., Herrera, C.M., García, I.M., Pérez, R. & Vaz, M. (2011) Intraplant variation in nectar traits in Helleborus foetidus (Ranunculaceae) as related to floral phase, environmental conditions and pollinator exposure. Flora, 206, 668-675.
20. Carlquist, S. (1965) Island Life: A Natural History of the Islands of the World. Natural History Press, Garden City, NY.
21. Carr, D.E. & Fenster, C.B. (1994) Levels of genetic-variation and covariation for Mimulus (Scrophulariaceae) floral traits. Heredity, 72, 606-618.
22. Caswell, H., Lensink, R. & Neubert, M.G. (2003) Demography and dispersal: life table response experiments for invasion speed. Ecology, 84, 1968-1978.
23. Caswell, H., Neubert, M.G. & Hunter, C.M. (2011) Demography and dispersal: invasion speeds and sensitivity analysis in periodic and stochastic environments. Theoretical Ecology, 4, 407-421.
24. Charlesworth, B. & Charlesworth, D. (1979) The maintenance and breakdown of distyly. American Naturalist, 114, 499-513.
25. Cheptou, P.O., Carrue, O., Rouifed, S. & Cantarel, A. (2008) Rapid evolution of seed dispersal in an urban environment in the weed Crepis sancta. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 105, 3796-3799.
26. Childs, D.Z., Rees, M., Rose, K.E., Grubb, P.J. & Ellner, S.P. (2003) Evolution of complex flowering strategies: an age- and size-structured integral projection model. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 270, 1829-1838.
27. Childs, D.Z., Rees, M., Rose, K.E., Grubb, P.J. & Ellner, S.P. (2004) Evolution of size-dependent flowering in a variable environment: construction and analysis of a stochastic integral projection model. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 271, 425-434.
28. Cody, M.L. & Overton, J.M. (1996) Short-term evolution of reduced dispersal in island plant populations. Journal of Ecology, 84, 53-61.
29. Coulson, T., Tuljapurkar, S. & Childs, D.Z. (2010) Using evolutionary demography to link life history theory, quantitative genetics and population ecology. Journal of Animal Ecology, 79, 1226-1240.
30. Coulson, T., Kruuk, L.E.B., Tavecchia, G., Pemberton, J.M. & Clutton-Brock, T.H. (2003) Estimating selection on neonatal traits in red deer using elasticity path analysis. Evolution, 57, 2879-2892.
31. Cruden, R.W. & Lyon, D.L. (1989) Facultative xenogamy: examination of a mixed mating system. Evolutionary Ecology of Plants (eds J. Bock & Y.B. Linhart), pp. 171-207. Westview Press, Boulder, CO.
32. Davison, R., Jacquemyn, H., Adriaens, D., Honnay, O., de Kroon, H. & Tuljapurkar, S. (2010) Demographic effects of extreme weather events on a short-lived calcareous grassland species: stochastic life table response experiments. Journal of Ecology, 98, 255-267.
33. Diamond, J. (1989) Overview of recent extinctions. Conservation for the Twenty-First Century (eds D. Western & M.C. Pearl), pp. 37-41. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
34. Easterling, M.R., Ellner, S.P. & Dixon, P.M. (2000) Size-specific sensitivity: applying a new structured population model. Ecology, 81, 694-708.
35. Eckert, C.G. (2002) The loss of sex in clonal plants. Evolutionary Ecology, 15, 501-520.
36. Eckert, C.G. & Barrett, S.C.H. (1993) Clonal reproduction and patterns of genotypic diversity in Decodon verticillatus (Lythraceae). American Journal of Botany, 80, 1175-1182.
37. Eckert, C.G. & Herlihy, C.R. (2004) Using a cost-benefit approach to understand the evolution of self-fertilization in plants: the perplexing case of Aquilegia canadensis (Ranunculaceae). Plant Species Biology, 19, 159-173.
38. Eckert, C.G., Kalisz, S., Geber, M.A., Sargent, R., Elle, E., Cheptou, P.O. et al. (2010) Plant mating systems in a changing world. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25, 35-43.
39. Ehrlén, J. & Münzbergova, Z. (2009) Timing of flowering: opposed selection on different fitness components and trait covariation. American Naturalist, 173, 819-830.
40. Ellner, S.P. & Rees, M. (2006) Integral projection models for species with complex demography. American Naturalist, 167, 410-428.
41. Ellner, S.P. & Rees, M. (2007) Stochastic stable population growth in integral projection models: theory and application. Journal of Mathematical Biology, 54, 227-256.
42. Franklin, I.R. (1980) Evolutionary change in small populations. Conservation Biology, An Evolutionary-Ecological Perspective (eds M.E. Soule & B.A. Wilcox), pp. 135-169. Sinauer, Sunderland.
43. Fresnillo, B. & Ehlers, B.K. (2008) Variation in dispersability among mainland and island populations of three wind dispersed plant species. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 270, 243-255.
44. Fussman, G.F., Loreau, M. & Abrams, P.A. (2007) Eco-evolutionary dynamics of communities and ecosystems. Functional Ecology, 21, 465-477.
45. Ghazoul, J. (2005) Pollen and seed dispersal among dispersed plants. Biological Review, 80, 413-443.
46. Gómez, J.M. (2003) Herbivory reduces the strength of pollinator-mediated selection in the Mediterranean herb Erysimum mediohispanicum: consequences for plant specialization. American Naturalist, 162, 242-256.
47. González-Varo, J.P., Arroyo, J. & Aparicio, A. (2009) Effects of fragmentation on pollinator assemblage, pollen limitation and seed production of Mediterranean myrtle (Myrtus communis). Biological Conservation, 142, 1058-1065.
48. Goodwillie, C., Kalisz, S. & Eckert, C.G. (2005) The evolutionary enigma of mixed mating systems in plants: occurrence, theoretical explanations, and empirical evidence. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 36, 47-79.
49. Grünewald, C., Breitbach, N. & Böhning-Gaese, K. (2010) Tree visitation and seed dispersal of wild cherries by terrestrial mammals along a human land-use gradient. Basic and Applied Ecology, 11, 532-541.
50. Gyllenberg, M., Parvinen, K. & Dieckmann, U. (2002) Evolutionary suicide and evolution of dispersal in structured metapopulations. Journal of Mathematical Biology, 45, 79-105.
51. Harder, L.D. & Aizen, M.A. (2010) Floral adaptation and diversification under pollen limitation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B-Biological Sciences, 365, 529-543.
52. Heino, M. & Hanski, I. (2001) Evolution of migration rate in a spatially realistic metapopulation model. American Naturalist, 157, 495-511.
53. Hendry, A.P. & Kinnison, M.T. (1999) The pace of modern life: measuring rates of microevolution. Evolution, 53, 1637-1653.
54. Herlihy, C.R. & Eckert, C.G. (2007) Evolutionary analysis of a key floral trait in Aquilegia canadensis (Ranunculaceae): genetic variation in herkogamy and its effect on the mating system. Evolution, 61, 1661-1674.
55. Herrera, J.M. & García, D. (2010) Effects of forest fragmentation on seed rain and seedling establishment in ornithochorous plants. Conservation Biology, 24, 1089-1098.
56. Herrera, C.M., Perez, H. & Alonso, C. (2006) Extreme intraplant variation in nectar sugar composition in an insect-pollinated perennial herb. American Journal of Botany, 93, 575-581.
57. Hesse, E. & Pannell, J.R. (2011) Density-dependent pollen limitation and reproductive assurance in a wind-pollinated herb with contrasting sexual systems. Journal of Ecology, 99, 1531-1539.
58. Hesse, E., Rees, M. & Müller-Schärer, H. (2008) Life-history variation in contrasting habitats: flowering decisions in a clonal perennial herb (Veratrum album). American Naturalist, 172, E196-E213.
59. Hoffmann, A.A. & Willi, Y. (2008) Detecting genetic responses to environmental change. Nature Reviews Genetics, 9, 421-432.
60. Honnay, O. & Jacquemyn, H. (2007) Genetic response to habitat fragmentation in common and rare plant species. Conservation Biology, 21, 824-831.
61. Honnay, O. & Jacquemyn, H. (2008) A meta-analysis of the relation between mating system, growth form and genotypic diversity in clonal plant species. Evolutionary Ecology, 22, 299-312.
62. Honnay, O., Jacquemyn, H., Bossuyt, B. & Hermy, M. (2005) Forest fragmentation effects on patch occupancy and population viability of herbaceous plant species. New Phytologist, 166, 723-736.
63. Honnay, O., Bossuyt, B., Jacquemyn, H., Shimono, A. & Uchiyama, K. (2008) Can the seedbank maintain the genetic variation in the above ground plant population? Oikos, 117, 1-5.
64. Hughes, A.R., Inouye, B.D., Johnson, M.T.J., Underwood, N. & Vellend, M. (2008) Ecological consequences of genetic diversity. Ecology Letters, 11, 609-623.
65. Hunter, C.M. & Caswell, H. (2005) The use of the vec-permutation matrix in spatial matrix population models. Ecological Modelling, 188, 15-21.
66. Imbert, E. (2001) Capitulum characters in a seed heteromorphic plant, Crepis sancta (Asteraceae): variance partitioning and inference for the evolution of dispersal rate. Heredity, 86, 78-86.
67. Jacquemyn, H. & Brys, R. (2008) Density-dependent mating and reproductive assurance in the temperate forest herb Paris quadrifolia (Trilliaceae). American Journal of Botany, 95, 294-298.
68. Jacquemyn, H., Brys, R. & Hermy, M. (2002) Patch occupancy, population size and reproductive success of a forest herb (Primula elatior) in a fragmented landscape. Oecologia, 130, 617-625.
69. Jacquemyn, H., Brys, R. & Jongejans, E. (2010) Size-dependent flowering and costs of reproduction affect population dynamics in a tuberous perennial woodland orchid. Journal of Ecology, 98, 1204-1215.
70. Jacquemyn, H., Brys, R. & Neubert, M. (2005) Fire increases invasive spread of Molinia caerulea mainly through changes in demographic parameters. Ecological Applications, 15, 2097-2108.
71. Jacquemyn, H., Brys, R., Honnay, O., Hermy, M. & Roldán-Ruiz, I. (2005) Local forest environment largely affects belowground growth, clonal diversity and fine scale spatial genetic structure in the temperate deciduous forest herb Paris quadrifolia. Molecular Ecology, 14, 4479-4488.
72. Jacquemyn, H., Brys, R., Davison, R., Tuljapurkar, S. & Jongejans, E. (2011) Stochastic LTRE analysis of the effects of herbivory on the population dynamics of a perennial grassland herb. Oikos, doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19774.x.
73. Jakobsson, A. & Eriksson, O. (2003) Trade-offs between dispersal and competitive ability: a comparative study of wind-dispersed Asteraceae forbs. Evolutionary Ecology, 17, 233-246.
74. Jersáková, J. & Johnson, S.D. (2006) Lack of floral nectar reduces self-pollination in a fly-pollinated orchid. Oecologia, 147, 60-68.
75. Jersáková, J., Johnson, S.D., Kindlmann, P. & Puppin, A.-C. (2008) Effect of nectar supplementation on male and female components of pollination success in the deceptive orchid Dactylorhiza sambucina. Acta Oecologica, 33, 300-306.
76. Johnson, M.T.J. (2007) Genotype-by-environment interaction leads to variable selection on life-history strategy in common evening primrose (Oenothera biennis). Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 20, 190-200.
77. Johnson, S.D., Peter, C.I. & Ågren, J. (2004) The effects of nectar addition on pollen removal and geitonogamy in the non-rewarding orchid Anacamptis morio. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 271, 803-809.
78. Jongejans, E., Huber, H. & de Kroon, H. (2010) Scaling up phenotypic plasticity with hierarchical population models. Evolutionary Ecology, 24, 585-599.
79. Jongejans, E., Shea, K., Skarpaas, O., Kelly, D., Sheppard, A.W. & Woodburn, T.L. (2008) Dispersal and demography contributions to population spread of Carduus nutans in its native and invaded ranges. Journal of Ecology, 96, 687-697.
80. Jongejans, E., Shea, K., Skarpaas, O., Kelly, D. & Ellner, S.P. (2011) Importance of individual and environmental variation for invasive species spread: a spatial integral projection model. Ecology, 92, 86-97.
81. Kalisz, S., Vogler, D.W. & Hanley, K.M. (2004) Context-dependent autonomous self-fertilization yields reproductive assurance and mixed mating. Nature, 430, 884-887.
82. Kearns, C.A., Inouye, D.W. & Waser, N.M. (1998) Endangered mutualisms: the conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 83-112.
83. Keller, L.F. & Waller, D.M. (2002) Inbreeding effects in wild populations. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 17, 230-241.
84. Klinkhamer, P.G.L. & van der Lugt, P.P. (2004) Pollinator service only depends on nectar production rates in sparse populations. Oecologia, 140, 491-494.
85. Knight, T.M., Steets, J.A., Vamosi, J.C., Mazer, S.J., Burd, M., Campbell, D.R., Dudash, M.R., Johnston, M.O., Mitchell, R.J. & Ashman, T.L. (2005) Pollen limitation of plant reproduction: pattern and process. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 36, 467-497.
86. Kolb, A. (2005) Reduced reproductive success and offspring survival in fragmented populations of the forest herb Phyteuma spicatum. Journal of Ecology, 93, 1226-1237.
87. Krauss, J., Steffan-Dewenter, I. & Tscharntke, T. (2003) How does landscape context contribute to effects of habitat fragmentation on diversity and population density of butterflies? Journal of Biogeography, 30, 889-900.
88. Kuss, P., Rees, M., Agisdóttir, H.H., Ellner, S.P. & Stöcklin, J. (2008) Evolutionary demography of long-lived perennials: a time-lagged integral projection model. Journal of Ecology, 96, 821-832.
89. Law, R., Bradshaw, A.D. & Putwain, P.D. (1977) Life-history variation in Poa annua. Evolution, 31, 233-246.
90. Leimu, R. & Fischer, M. (2008) A meta-analysis of local adaptation in plants. PLoS ONE, 3, e4010.
91. Leimu, R., Mutikainen, P., Koricheva, J. & Fischer, M. (2006) How general are positive relationships between plant population size, fitness and genetic variation? Journal of Ecology, 94, 942-952.
92. Leiss, K.A. & Klinkhamer, P.G.L. (2005) Spatial distribution of nectar production in a natural Echium vulgare population: implications for pollinator behaviour. Basic and Applied Ecology, 6, 317-324.
93. Leiss, K.A., Peet, M. & Klinkhamer, P.G.L. (2009) Does spatial aggregation of total nectar production lead to genetic structure? Basic and Applied Ecology, 10, 379-386.
94. Leiss, K.A., Vrieling, K. & Klinkhamer, P.G.L. (2004) Heritability of nectar production in Echium vulgare. Heredity, 92, 446-451.
95. Lennartsson, T., Oostermeijer, J.G.B., van Dijk, J. & den Nijs, H.C.M. (2000) Ecological significance and heritability of floral reproductive traits in Gentianella campestris (Gentianaceae). Basic and Applied Ecology, 1, 69-81.
96. Levey, D.J., Bolker, B.M., Tewksbury, J.J., Sargent, S. & Haddad, N.M. (2005) Effects of landscape corridors on seed dispersal by birds. Science, 309, 146-148.
97. Lloyd, D.G. (1987) Allocation to pollen, seeds and pollination mechanisms in self-fertilizing plants. Functional Ecology, 1, 83-89.
98. Lloyd, D.G. (1992) Self- and cross-fertilization in plants. II. The selection of self-fertilization. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 153, 370-380.
99. Luijten, S.H., Oostermeijer, J.G.B., Ellis-Adam, A.C. & den Nijs, J.C.M. (1999) Variable herkogamy and autofertility in marginal populations of Gentianella germanica in the Netherlands. Folia Geobotanica, 34, 483-496.
100. Merilä, J. & Crnokrak, P. (2001) Comparison of genetic differentiation at marker loci and quantitative traits. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 14, 892-903.
101. Metcalf, C.J.E. & Mitchell-Olds, T. (2009) Life history in a model system: opening the black box with Arabidopsis thaliana. Ecology Letters, 12, 593-600.
102. Metcalf, C.J.E. & Pavard, S. (2007) Why evolutionary biologists should be demographers. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22, 205-212.
103. Metcalf, C.J.E., Rose, K.E., Childs, D.Z., Sheppard, D.W., Grubb, P.J. & Rees, M. (2008) Evolution of flowering decisions in a stochastic, density-dependent environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 105, 10466-10470.
104. Mitchell, R. (1993) Adaptive significance of Ipomopsis aggregata nectar production: observation and experiment in the field. Evolution, 47, 25-35.
105. Moeller, D.A. (2006) Geographic structure of pollinator communities, reproductive assurance, and the evolution of self-pollination. Ecology, 87, 1510-1522.
106. Morgan, M.T. & Wilson, G.M. (2005) Self-fertilization and the escape from pollen limitation in variable pollination environments. Evolution, 59, 1143-1148.
107. Motten, A.F. & Stone, J.L. (2000) Heritability of stigma position and the effect of stigma-anther separation on outcrossing in a predominantly self-fertilizing weed, Datura stramonium (Solanaceae). American Journal of Botany, 87, 339-347.
108. Neubert, M.G. & Caswell, H. (2000) Demography and dispersal: calculation and sensitivity analysis of invasion speed for structured populations. Ecology, 81, 1613-1628.
109. Ornduff, R. (1969) Reproductive biology in relation to systematics. Taxon, 18, 121.
110. Ozgul, A., Childs, D.Z., Oli, M.K., Armitage, K.B., Blumstein, D.T., Olson, L.E., Tuljapurkar, S. & Coulson, T. (2010) Coupled dynamics of body mass and population growth in response to environmental change. Nature, 466, 482-485.
111. Palumbi, S.R. (2001) Humans as the world's greatest evolutionary force. Science, 293, 1786-1790.
112. Peay, K.G., Garbelotto, M. & Bruns, T.D. (2010) Evidence of dispersal limitation in soil microorganisms: Isolation reduces species richness on mycorrhizal tree islands. Ecology, 91, 3631-3640.
113. Pelletier, F., Grant, D. & Hendry, A.P. (2009) Eco-evolutionary dynamics: an introduction. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B-Biological Sciences, 364, 1483-1489.
114. Petanidou, T. (2005) Sugars in Mediterranean floral nectars: an ecological and evolutionary approach. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31, 1065-1088.
115. Pimm, S.L. & Raven, P. (2000) Extinction by numbers. Nature, 403, 843-845.
116. Porcher, E. & Lande, R. (2005) The evolution of self-fertilization and inbreeding depression under pollen discounting and pollen limitation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 18, 497-508.
117. Potts, S.G., Biesmeijer, J.C., Kremen, C., Neumann, P., Schweiger, O. & Kunin, W.E. (2010) Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25, 345-353.
118. Pyke, G.H. (1991) What does it cost a plant to produce floral nectar? Nature, 350, 58-59.
119. Rees, M. & Ellner, S.P. (2009) Integral projection models for populations in temporally varying environments. Ecological Monographs, 79, 575-594.
120. Rees, M. & Rose, K.E. (2002) Evolution of flowering strategies in Oenothera glazioviana: a, integral projection model approach. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 269, 1509-1515.
121. Rees, M., Childs, D.Z., Rose, K.E. & Grubb, P.J. (2004) Evolution of size dependent flowering in a variable environment: partitioning the effects of fluctuating selection. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, 271, 471-475.
122. Rees, M., Childs, D.Z., Metcalf, J.C., Rose, K.E., Sheppard, A.W. & Grub, P.J. (2006) Seed dormancy and delayed flowering in monocarpic plants: selective interactions in a stochastic environment. American Naturalist, 168, E53-E71.
123. Riba, M., Mignot, A., Fréville, H., Colas, B., Imbert, E., Vile, D., Virevaire, M. & Olivieri, I. (2005) Variation in dispersal traits in a narrow-endemic plant species, Centaurea corymbosa Pourret. (Asteraceae). Evolutionary Ecology, 19, 241-254.
124. Riba, M., Mayol, M., Giles, B.E., Ronce, O., Imbert, E., van der Velde, M., Chauvet, S., Ericson, L., Bijlsma, R., Vosman, B., Smulders, M.J.M. & Olivieri, I. (2009) Darwin's wind hypothesis: does it work for plant dispersal in fragmented habitats? New Phytologist, 183, 667-677.
125. Ricketts, T.H., Regetz, J., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S.A., Kremen, C., Bogdanski, A. et al. (2008) Landscape effects on crop pollination services: are there general patterns? Ecology Letters, 11, 499-515.
126. Roff, D.A. (1990) The evolution of flightlessness in insects. Ecological Monographs, 60, 389-421.
127. Rossetto, M., Gross, C.L., Jones, R. & Hunter, J. (2004) The impact of clonality on an endangered tree (Elaeocarpus williamsianus) in a fragmented rainforest. Biological Conservation, 67, 33-39.
128. Schoen, D.J., Johnston, M.O., L'Heureux, A.M. & Marsolais, J.V. (1997) Evolutionary history of the mating system in Amsinckia (Boraginaceae). Evolution, 51, 1090-1099.
129. Schoener, T.W. (2011) The newest synthesis: understanding the interplay of evolutionary and ecological dynamics. Science, 331, 426-429.
130. Schreiber, S.J. & Ryan, M.E. (2011) Invasion speeds for structured populations in fluctuating environments. Theoretical Ecology, 4, 423-434.
131. Sih, A. & Baltus, M.S. (1987) Patch size, pollinator behavior, and pollinator limitation in Catnip. Ecology, 68, 1679-1690.
132. Skarpaas, O., Silverman, E.J., Jongejans, E. & Shea, K. (2011) Are the best dispersers the best colonizers? Seed mass, dispersal and establishment in Carduus thistles. Evolutionary Ecology, 25, 155-169.
133. Soons, M.B. & Heil, G.W. (2002) Reduced colonization capacity in fragmented populations of wind-dispersed grassland forbs. Journal of Ecology, 90, 1033-1043.
134. Stockwell, C.A., Hendry, A.P. & Kinnison, M.T. (2003) Contemporary evolution meets conservation biology. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18, 94-101.
135. Tewksbury, J.J., Levey, D.J., Haddad, N.M., Sargent, S., Orrock, J.L., Weldon, A., Danielson, B.J., Brinkerhoff, J., Damschen, E.I. & Townsend, P. (2002) Corridors affect plants, animals, and their interactions in fragmented landscapes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99, 12923-12926.
136. van Tienderen, P.H. (2000) Elasticities and the link between demographic and evolutionary dynamics. Ecology, 81, 666-679.
137. Tuljapurkar, S. (1990) Population Dynamics in Variable Environments. Springer, New York, NY.
138. Valladares, G., Salvo, A. & Cagnolo, L. (2006) Habitat fragmentation effects on trophic processes of insect-plant food webs. Conservation Biology, 20, 212-217.
139. Vallejo-Marín, M., Dorken, M.E. & Barrett, S.C.H. (2010) The ecological and evolutionary consequences of clonality for plant mating. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics, 41, 193-213.
140. Vandepitte, K., Roldán-Ruiz, I., Leus, L., Jacquemyn, H. & Honnay, O. (2009) Canopy closure shapes clonal diversity and fine-scale genetic structure in the dioecious understorey perennial Mercurialis perennis. Journal of Ecology, 97, 404-414.
141. Vellend, M., Drummond, E.B.M. & Tomimatsu, H. (2010) Effects of genotype identity and diversity on the invasiveness and invasibility of plant populations. Oecologia, 162, 371-381.
142. Weber, A. & Kolb, A. (2011) Evolutionary consequences of habitat fragmentation: population size and density affect selection on inflorescence size in a perennial herb. Evolutionary Ecology, 25, 417-428.
143. Wesselingh, R.A., Klinkhamer, P.G.L., de Jong, T.J. & Boorman, L.A. (1997) Threshold size for flowering in different habitats: effects of size-dependent growth and survival. Ecology, 78, 2118-2132.
144. Williams, J.L. (2009) Flowering life-history strategies differ between the native and introduced ranges of a monocarpic perennial. American Naturalist, 174, 660-672.
145. Winfree, R., Aguilar, R., Vázquez, D.P., LeBuhn, G. & Aizen, M.A. (2009) A meta-analysis of bees' responses to anthropogenic disturbance. Ecology, 90, 2068-2076.
146. Wright, S. (1931) Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics, 16, 97-159.
147. Yang, S., Ferrari, M.J. & Shea, K. (2011) Pollinator behavior mediates negative interactions between two congeneric invasive plant species. American Naturalist, 177, 110-118.
148. Young, A., Boyle, T. & Brown, T. (1996) The population genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation for plants. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 11, 413-418.