Group size and its effects on collective organization

Annual Review of Entomology

Volumn 57, Issue , 2012, Pages 123-141

  Dornhaus, Anna ^a   Powell, Scott ^a   Bengston, Sarah ^a  

^a University of Arizona   (United States)

Author keywords

Caste; Colony size; Communication; Division of labor; Scaling; Self organization

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; ARTICLE; INSECT; NESTING; POPULATION DENSITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

ANIMALS; INSECTS; NESTING BEHAVIOR; POPULATION DENSITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EID: 83455205914     PISSN: 00664170     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100604     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Anderson C, McShea DW. 2001. Individual versus social complexity, with particular reference to ant colonies. Biol. Rev. 76:211-37 (Pubitemid 32448365)
2. Anderson C, Ratnieks FLW. 1999. Task partitioning in insect societies. I. Effect of colony size on queueing delay and colony ergonomic efficiency. Am. Nat. 354:521-35 (Pubitemid 30018399)
3. Aoki S, Imai M. 2005. Factors affecting the proportion of sterile soldiers in growing aphid colonies. Popul. Ecol. 47:127-36 (Pubitemid 41225166)
4. Arendt J. 2007. Ecological correlates of body size in relation to cell size and cell number: patterns in flies, fish, fruits and foliage. Biol. Rev. 82:241-56 (Pubitemid 46591324)
5. Aviles L, Tufino P. 1998. Colony size and individual fitness in the social spider Anelosimus eximius. Am. Nat. 152:404-18
6. Bazazi S, Buhl J, Hale JJ, Anstey ML, Sword GA, et al. 2008. Collectivemotion and cannibalism in locust migratory bands. Curr. Biol. 18:735-39
7. Beckers R, Goss S, Deneubourg JL, Pasteels JM. 1989. Colony size, communication and ant foraging strategy. Psyche 96:239-56
8. Beekman. 2004. Comparing foraging behaviour of small and large honey-bee colonies by decoding waggle dances made by foragers. Funct. Ecol. 18:829-35 (Pubitemid 40033224)
9. Beekman M, Sumpter D, Ratnieks F. 2001. Phase transition between disordered and ordered foraging in Pharaoh's ants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98:9703-4
10. Beshers S, Fewell JH. 2001. Models of division of labor in social insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 46:413-40 (Pubitemid 32304995)
11. Beshers SN, Traniello JFA. 1994. The adaptiveness ofworker demography in the attine ant Trachymyrmex septentrionalis. Ecology 75:763-75
12. Billick I. 2002. The relationship between the distribution of worker sizes and new worker production in the ant Formica neorufibarbis. Oecologia 132:244-49 (Pubitemid 36064409)
13. Billick I, Carter C. 2007. Testing the importance of the distribution ofworker sizes to colony performance in the ant species Formica obscuripes Forel. Insectes Soc. 54:113-17 (Pubitemid 46713201)
14. Bird D, O'Connell J. 2006. Human behavioral ecology and archaeology. J. Archaeol. Res. 14:143-88
15. Blanckenhorn WU. 2000. The evolution of body size:What keeps organisms small? Q. Rev. Biol. 75:385-407
16. Blueweiss L, Fox H, Kudzma V, Nakashima D, Peters R, Sams S. 1978. Relationships between body size and some life history parameters. Oecologia 37:257-72
17. Bonner JT. 2006. Why Size Matters: From Bacteria to Blue Whales. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
18. Bourke AFG. 1999. Colony size, social complexity and reproductive conflict in social insects. J. Evol. Biol. 12:245-57 (Pubitemid 29291674)
19. Bouwma AM, Nordheim EV, Jeanne RL. 2006. Per-capita productivity in a social wasp: no evidence for a negative effect of colony size. Insectes Soc. 53:412-19 (Pubitemid 44967008)
20. Brown JH, Marquet PA, Taper ML. 1993. Evolution of body-size: consequences of an energetic definition of fitness. Am. Nat. 142:573-84
21. Buhl J, Gautrais J, Deneubourg J-L, Theraulaz G. 2004. Nest excavation in ants: group size effects on the size and structure of tunneling networks. Naturwissenschaften 91:602-6 (Pubitemid 40064612)
22. Burkhardt. 1998. Individual flexibility and tempo in the ant, Pheidole dentata, and the influence of group size. J. Insect Behav. 11:493-503
23. Calabi P, Traniello JFA. 1989. Social-organization in the ant Pheidole dentata: Physical and temporal caste ratios lack ecological correlates. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 24:69-78
24. Cao TT, Dornhaus A. 2008. Ants under crowded conditions consume more energy. Biol. Lett. 4:613-15
25. Cassill D. 2002. Yoyo-bang: a risk-aversion investment strategy by a perennial insect society. Oecologia 132:150-58 (Pubitemid 36080225)
26. Cole B. 1984. Colony efficiency and the reproductivity effect in Leptothorax allardycei (Mann). Insectes Soc. 31:403-7
27. Cole B. 1986. The social behavior of Leptothorax allardycei (Hymenoptera, Formicidae): time budgets and the evolution of worker reproduction. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 18:165-73
28. Costa JT. 2006. The Other Insect Societies. Cambridge, MA: Belknap
29. Crozier RH, Page RE. 1985. On being the right size: male contributions and multiple mating in social Hymenoptera. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 18:105-15
30. Debout G, Schatz B, Elias M, McKey D. 2007. Polydomy in ants: What we know, what we think we know, and what remains to be done. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 90:319-48 (Pubitemid 46192771)
31. Dornhaus A. 2008. Specialization does not predict individual performance in an ant. PLoS Biol. 6:e285
32. Dornhaus A, Franks NR. 2006. Colony size affects collective decision-making in the ant Temnothorax albipennis. Insectes Soc. 53:420-27 (Pubitemid 44967009)
33. Dornhaus A, Holley J-A, Franks NR. 2009. Larger colonies do not have more specialized workers in the ant Temnothorax albipennis. Behav. Ecol. 20:922-29
34. Dornhaus A, Holley J-A, Pook VG,Worswick G, Franks NR. 2008.Whydon't all workerswork? Colony size and workload during emigrations in the ant Temnothorax albipennis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 63:43-51
35. Dornhaus A, Kl̈ugl F, Oechslein C, Puppe F, Chittka L. 2006. Benefits of recruitment in honey bees: effects of ecology and colony size in an individual-based model. Behav. Ecol. 17:336-44
36. Enquist B, Economo E, Huxman T, Allen A, Ignace D, Gillooly J. 2003. Scaling metabolism from organisms to ecosystems. Nature 423:639-42 (Pubitemid 36713223)
37. Fjerdingstad EJ, Crozier RH. 2006. The evolution of worker caste diversity in social insects. Am. Nat. 167:390-400
38. Foster WA. 1990. Experimental evidence for effective and altruistic colony defence against natural predators by soldiers of the gall-forming aphid Pemphigus spyrothecae (Hemiptera: Pemphigidae). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 27:421-30
39. Franks NR. 1985. Reproduction, foraging efficiency and worker polymorphism in army ants. In Experimental Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology: In Memoriam Karl von Frisch, 1886-1982, ed. B Ḧolldobler, M Lindauer, 31:91-107. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc.
40. Franks NR, Dornhaus A, Best CS, Jones EL. 2006. Decision-making by small and large house-hunting ant colonies: One size fits all. Anim. Behav. 53:611-16 (Pubitemid 44311109)
41. Franks NR, Partridge LW. 1993. Lanchester battles and the evolution of combat in ants. Anim. Behav. 45:197-99
42. Franks NR, Scovell E. 1983. Dominance and reproductive success among slave-making worker ants. Nature 304:724-25
43. Gautrais J, Theraulaz G, Deneubourg JL, Anderson C. 2002. Emergent polyethism as a consequence of increased colony size in insect societies. J. Theor. Biol. 215:363-73 (Pubitemid 34948570)
44. Gillooly J,Hou C, KaspariM. 2010. Eusocial insects as superorganisms: insights from metabolic theory. Commun. Integr. Biol. 3:360-62
45. Giron D, Ross KG, Strand MR. 2007. Presence of soldier larvae determines the outcome of competition in a polyembryonic wasp. J. Evol. Biol. 20:165-72 (Pubitemid 44968166)
46. Gordon DM. 1995. The development of an ant colony's foraging range. Anim. Behav. 49:649-59
47. Gordon DM, Mehdiabadi NJ. 1999. Encounter rate and task allocation in harvester ants. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 45:370-77 (Pubitemid 29198656)
48. GreeneMJ, Gordon DM. 2007. Interaction rate informs harvester ant task decisions. Behav. Ecol. 18:451-55 (Pubitemid 46363270)
49. Greenleaf SS, Williams NM, Winfree R, Kremen C. 2007. Bee foraging ranges and their relationship to body size. Oecologia 153:589-96 (Pubitemid 47237870)
50. Hasegawa E. 1993. Nest defense and early production of themajor workers in the dimorphic ant Colobopsis nipponicus (Wheeler) (Hymenoptera, Formicidae). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 33:73-77 (Pubitemid 24411763)
51. Herbers JM. 1981. Reliability theory and foraging by ants. J. Theor. Biol. 89:175-89
52. Herbers JM, Choiniere E. 1996. Foraging behaviour and colony structure in ants. Anim. Behav. 51:141-53
53. Ḧolldobler B, Wilson EO. 1990. The Ants. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
54. Ḧolldobler B, Wilson EO. 2008. The Superorganism: The Beauty, Elegance, and Strangeness of Insect Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Co.
55. Hou C, Kaspari M, Zanden H, Gillooly J. 2010. Energetic basis of colonial living in social insects. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107:3634-38
56. Hughes WOH, Oldroyd BP, Beekman M, Ratnieks FLW. 2008. Ancestral monogamy shows kin selection is key to the evolution of eusociality. Science 320:1213-16 (Pubitemid 351929509)
57. Hughes WOH, Sumner S, Van Borm S, Boomsma JJ. 2003. Worker caste polymorphism has a genetic basis in Acromyrmex leaf-cutting ants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:9394-97 (Pubitemid 37033939)
58. Ito Y. 1985. Colony development and social structure in a subtropical paper wasp, Ropalidia fasciata (F.) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae). Res. Popul. Ecol. 27:333-49
59. Ito Y. 1993. Behavior and Social Evolution of Wasps. New York: Oxford Univ. Press
60. Jaffe R, Kronauer DJC, Kraus FB, Boomsma JJ, Moritz RFA. 2007. Worker caste determination in the army ant Eciton burchellii. Biol. Lett. 3:513-16
61. Jeanne RL. 1986. The organization of work in Polybia occidentalis: costs and benefits of specialization in a social wasp. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 19:333-41
62. Jeanne RL, Bouwma AM. 2002. Scaling in nests of a social wasp: a property of the social group. Biol. Bull. 202:289-95 (Pubitemid 34718410)
63. Jeanne RL, Nordheim EV. 1996. Productivity in a social wasp: per capita output increases with swarm size. Behav. Ecol. 7:43-48
64. Jeanson R, Fewell JH, Gorelick R, Bertram SM. 2007. Emergence of increased division of labor as a function of group size. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 62:289-98 (Pubitemid 350105294)
65. Jetz W, Carbone C, Fulford J, Brown J. 2004. The scaling of animal space use. Science 306:266-68 (Pubitemid 39336869)
66. Jun J, Pepper JW. 2003. Allometric scaling of ant foraging trail networks. Evol. Ecol. Res. 5:297-303 (Pubitemid 38681652)
67. Kamilar JM, Bribiescas RG, Bradley BJ. 2010. Is group size related to longevity in mammals? Biol. Lett. 6:736-39
68. Karsai IN, Wenzel JW. 1998. Productivity, individual-level and colony-level flexibility, and organization of work as consequences of colony size. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:8665-69 (Pubitemid 28350545)
69. Kaspari M. 2005. Global energy gradients and size in colonial organisms: worker mass and worker number in ant colonies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102:5079-83
70. KaspariM, Byrne MM. 1995. Caste allocation in litter Pheidole: lessons from plant defense theory. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 37:255-63
71. Kaspari M, O'Donnell S. 2003. High rates of army ant raids in the Neotropics and implications for ant colony and community structure. Evol. Ecol. Res. 5:933-39 (Pubitemid 38681662)
72. Kaspari M, Pickering J, Longino J, Windsor D. 2001. The phenology of a Neotropical ant assemblage: evidence for continuous and overlapping reproduction. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 50:382-90 (Pubitemid 32895137)
73. Kaspari M, Vargo E. 1995. Colony size as a buffer against seasonality: Bergmann's rule in social insects. Am. Nat. 145:610-32
74. Kremen C, Ostfeld RS. 2005.Acall to ecologists: measuring, analyzing, andmanaging ecosystem services. Front. Ecol. Environ. 3:540-48
75. Litte M. 1977. Behavioral ecology of the social wasp, Mischocyttarus mexicanus. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 2:229-46
76. London KB, Jeanne RL. 2003. Effects of colony size and stage of development on defense response by the swarm-founding wasp Polybia occidentalis. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54:539-46 (Pubitemid 37261488)
77. Long CE, Thorne BL, Breisch NL. 2003. Termite colony ontogeny: a long-term assessment of reproductive lifespan, caste ratios and colony size in Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Bull. Entomol. Res. 93:439-45 (Pubitemid 37343151)
78. Macevicz S, Oster G. 1976. Modeling social insect populations II. Optimal reproductive strategies in annual eusocial insect colonies. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1:265-82
79. Mailleux A-C, Deneubourg J-L, Detrain C. 2003. How does colony growth influence communication in ants? Insectes Soc. 50:24-31 (Pubitemid 36333364)
80. McGlynn TP, Owen JP. 2002. Food supplementation alters caste allocation in a natural population of Pheidole flavens, a dimorphic leaf-litter dwelling ant. Insectes Soc. 49:8-14 (Pubitemid 34290174)
81. Michener C. 1964. Reproductive efficiency in relation to colony size in hymenopterous societies. Insectes Soc. 11:317-41
82. Michener C. 1974. The Social Behavior of the Bees: A Comparative Study. Cambridge, MA: Belknap
83. MonninT, Ratnieks FLW, Brand̃ao C. 2003. Reproductive conflict in animal societies:Hierarchy length increases with colony size in queenless ponerine ants. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 54:103-15
84. Moreau CS. 2009. Inferring ant evolution in the age of molecular data (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecol. News 12:201-10
85. Moreau CS, Bell CD, Vila R, Archibald B, Pierce NE. 2006. Phylogeny of the ants: diversification in the age of angiosperms. Science 312:101-4
86. Murakami T, Higashi S, Windsor D. 2000. Mating frequency, colony size, polyethism and sex ratio in fungus-growing ants (Attini). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 48:276-84
87. O'Donnell S, Jeanne RL. 1992. Lifelong patterns of forager behavior in a tropical swarm-founding wasp: effects of specialization and activity level on longevity. Anim. Behav. 44:1021-27 (Pubitemid 23401627)
88. O'Donnell S, Lattke J, Powell S, Kaspari M. 2007. Army ants in four forests: geographic variation in raid rates and species composition. J. Anim. Ecol. 76:580-89 (Pubitemid 46606832)
89. Oster GF,Wilson EO. 1978. Caste and Ecology in the Social Insects. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
90. Pacala SW, Gordon DM, Godfray HCJ. 1996. Effects of social group size on information transfer and task allocation. Evol. Ecol. 10:127-65
91. Passera L, Roncin E, Kaufmann B, Keller L. 1996. Increased soldier production in ant colonies exposed to intraspecific competition. Nature 379:630-31
92. Peeters C. 1997. Morphologically "primitive" ants: comparative review of social characters, and the importance of queen-worker dimorphism. In Social Behavior in Insects and Arachnids, ed. JC Choe, BJ Crespi, pp. 372-91. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
93. Poitrineau K, Mitesser O, Poethke HJ. 2009. Workers, sexuals, or both? Optimal allocation of resources to reproduction and growth in annual insect colonies. Insectes Soc. 56:119-29
94. Powell S. 2009. How ecology shapes caste evolution: linking resource use, morphology, performance and fitness in a superorganism. J. Evol. Biol. 22:1004-13
95. Powell S, Clark E. 2004. Combat between large derived societies: a subterranean army ant established as a predator of mature leaf-cutting ant colonies. Insectes Soc. 51:342-51 (Pubitemid 40059283)
96. Powell S, Franks NR. 2005. Caste evolution and ecology: a special worker for novel prey. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 272:2173-80 (Pubitemid 41475735)
97. Roisin Y. 2000. Diversity and evolution of caste patterns. In Termites: Evolution, Sociality, Symbioses, Ecology, ed. T Abe, DE Bignell, M Higashi, pp. 95-119. New York: Springer
98. Ronnas C, Larsson S, Pitacco A, Battisti A. 2010. Effects of colony size on larval performance in a processionary moth. Ecol. Entomol. 35:436-45
99. Ross K, Matthews R. 1991. The Social Biology of Wasps. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press
100. Roubik DW. 1989. Ecology and Natural History of Tropical Bees. New York: CambridgeUniv. Press
101. Rueppell O, Kaftanouglu O, Page RE. 2009. Honey bee (Apis mellifera) workers live longer in small than in large colonies. Exp. Gerontol. 44:447-52
102. Rueppell O, Kirkman RW. 2005. Extraordinary starvation resistance in Temnothorax rugatulus (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) colonies: demography and adaptive behavior. Insectes Soc. 52:282-90 (Pubitemid 41187592)
103. Rypstra AL. 1979. Foraging flocks of spiders. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 5:291-300
104. Schmid-Hempel P. 1992. Worker castes and adaptive demography. J. Evol. Biol. 5:1-12 (Pubitemid 23397731)
105. Schneider S. 1990. Nest characteristics and recruitment behavior of absconding colonies of the African honey bee, Apis mellifera scutellata, in Africa. J. Insect Behav. 3:225-40
106. Seeley TD. 1995. The Wisdom of the Hive: The Social Physiology of Honey Bee Colonies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
107. Seeley TD, Morse RA. 1976. The nest of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.). Insectes Soc. 23:495-512
108. ShibaoH. 1998. Social structure and the defensive role of soldiers in a eusocial bamboo aphid, Pseudoregma bambucicola (Homoptera: Aphididae): a test of the defence-optimization hypothesis. Res. Popul. Ecol. 40:325-33
109. Shik JZ. 2008. Ant colony size and the scaling of reproductive effort. Funct. Ecol. 22:674-81 (Pubitemid 351989301)
110. Shingleton AW, Foster WA. 2000. Ant tending influences soldier production in a social aphid. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 267:1863-68
111. Simpson SJ, Sword GA, Lorch PD, Couzin ID. 2006. Cannibal crickets on a forced march for protein and salt. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103:4152-56
112. Sokolovska N, Rowe L, Johansson F. 2000. Fitness and body size in mature odonates. Ecol. Entomol. 25:239-48 (Pubitemid 30301894)
113. Sorvari J, Hakkarainen H. 2007. The role of food and colony size in sexual offspring production in a social insect: an experiment. Ecol. Entomol. 32:11-14 (Pubitemid 46208823)
114. Strassmann JE, Queller DC. 2010. The social organism: congresses, parties, and committees. Evolution 64:605-16
115. Strohm E, Bordon-Hauser A. 2003. Advantages and disadvantages of large colony size in a halictid bee: the queen's perspective. Behav. Ecol. 14:546-53 (Pubitemid 37042027)
116. Thomas M, Elgar M. 2003. Colony size affects division of labour in the ponerine ant Rhytidoponera metallica. Naturwissenschaften 90:88-92 (Pubitemid 36286907)
117. Thompson DJ, Fincke OM. 2002. Body size and fitness in Odonata, stabilising selection and a metaanalysis too far? Ecol. Entomol. 27:378-84 (Pubitemid 34536063)
118. Thorne BL, Breisch NL,Muscedere ML. 2003. Evolution of eusociality and the soldier caste in termites: influence of intraspecific competition and accelerated inheritance. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100:12808-13 (Pubitemid 37339981)
119. Tibbetts E, Reeve HK. 2003. Benefits of foundress associations in the paper wasp Polistes dominulus: increased productivity and survival, but no assurance of fitness returns. Behav. Ecol. 14:510-14 (Pubitemid 37042021)
120. TschinkelWR. 1988. Colony growth and the ontogeny of worker polymorphism in the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 22:103-15
121. TschinkelWR. 1991. Insect sociometry, a field in search of data. Insectes Soc. 38:77-82
122. TschinkelWR. 1993. Sociometry and sociogenesis of colonies of the fire ant Solenopsis invicta during one annual cycle. Ecol. Monogr. 63:425-57
123. TschinkelWR. 1998. Sociometry and sociogenesis of colonies of the harvester ant, Pogonomyrmex badius: worker characteristics in relation to colony size and season. Insectes Soc. 45:385-410 (Pubitemid 28560331)
124. Tschinkel WR. 2011. Back to basics: sociometry and sociogenesis of ant societies (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Myrmecol. News 14:49-54
125. TschinkelWR. 2011. The organization of foraging in the fire ant, Solenopsis invicta. J. Insect Sci. 11:26
126. Visscher P. 1996. Reproductive conflict in honey bees: a stalemate of worker egg-laying and policing. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 39:237-44
127. Walker J, Stamps J. 1986. A test of optimal caste ratio theory using the ant Camponotus (Colobopsis) impressus. Ecology 67:1052-62
128. Waters JS, Holbrook CT, Fewell JH, Harrison JF. 2010. Allometric scaling of metabolism, growth, and activity in whole colonies of the seed-harvester ant Pogonomyrmex californicus. Am. Nat. 176:501-10
129. Wenseleers T, Helanter̈a H, Hart A, Ratneiks FLW. 2004. Worker reproduction and policing in insect societies: an ESS analysis. J. Evol. Biol. 17:1035-47 (Pubitemid 39175171)
130. Wheeler DE. 1986. Developmental and physiological determinants of caste in social Hymenoptera: evolutionary implications. Am. Nat. 128:13-34
131. Whitehouse MEA, Jaffe K. 1996. Ant wars: combat strategies, territory and nest defence in the leafcutting ant Atta laevigata. Anim. Behav. 51:1207-17
132. Wilson EO. 1971. The Insect Societies. Cambridge, MA: Belknap. 548 pp.
133. Wilson EO. 1976. Behavioral discretization and the number of castes in an ant species. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 1:141-54
134. Wilson EO. 1983. Caste and division of labor in leaf-cutter ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae: Atta) IV. Colony ontogeny of A. cephalotes. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 14:55-60
135. Wilson EO. 1985. The sociogenesis of insect colonies. Science 228:1489-95 (Pubitemid 15237378)
136. Wyatt T. 1986. How a subsocial intertidal beetle, Bledius spectabilis, prevents flooding and anoxia in its burrow. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 19:323-31
137. Yang A, Martin C, Nijhout H. 2004. Geographic variation of caste structure among ant populations. Curr. Biol. 14:514-19 (Pubitemid 38431288)
138. Yip EC, Powers KS, Aviles L. 2008. Cooperative capture of large prey solves scaling challenge faced by spider societies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 105:11818-22
139. Yukawa J, Tsuji K, Tanaka S, Ito Y. 1995. Factors affecting the proportion of soldiers in eusocial bamboo aphid, Pseudoregma bambucicola, colonies. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 7:335-45 (Pubitemid 3019135)