The Nordic Seas carbon budget: Sources, sinks, and uncertainties

Global Biogeochemical Cycles

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2011, Pages

  Jeansson, Emil ^a,b   Olsen, Are ^a,b,c   Eldevik, Tor ^b,d   Skjelvan, Ingunn ^a,b,d   Omar, Abdirahman M ^a,b   Lauvset, Siv K ^b,d   Nilsen, Jan Even Ø ^e   Bellerby, Richard G J ^a,b,d   Johannessen, Truls ^a,b,d   Falck, Eva ^a,b,d  

^a Uni Research AS   (Norway)

^b BJERKNES CENTRE FOR CLIMATE RESEARCH   (Norway)

^c INSTITUTE OF MARINE RESEARCH   (Norway)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

^e NANSEN ENVIRONMENTAL AND REMOTE SENSING CENTER   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

A-CARBON; ATLANTIC WATER; CARBON BUDGETS; CARBON TRANSPORT; GREENLAND-SCOTLAND RIDGE; HORIZONTAL TRANSPORT; INORGANIC CARBON; NORDIC SEAS; NORTH ATLANTIC; ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE; PRE-INDUSTRIAL; RIVER RUNOFFS; SEDIMENT BURIAL; VOLUME TRANSPORT; WATER MASS;

ANOXIC SEDIMENTS; BUDGET CONTROL; CARBON; CARBON DIOXIDE;

ORGANIC CARBON;

ADVECTION; BURIAL (GEOLOGY); CARBON BUDGET; CARBON CYCLE; CARBON DIOXIDE; DATABASE; INORGANIC CARBON; ORGANIC CARBON; RUNOFF; SOURCE-SINK DYNAMICS; UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS; WATER MASS;

ARCTIC; ARCTIC OCEAN; GREENLAND; NORWEGIAN SEA; SCOTLAND; SOUTHERN OCEAN; UNITED KINGDOM;

EID: 83455205771     PISSN: 08866236     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2010GB003961     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. Aagaard, K., and E. Carmack (1989), The role of sea ice and other fresh water in the Arctic circulation, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 14,485-14,498.
2. Aksenov, Y., S. Bacon, A. C. Coward, and A. J. G. Nurser (2010), The North Atlantic inflow to the Arctic Ocean: High-resolution model study, J. Mar. Syst., 79(1-2), 1-22, doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2009.05.003.
3. Amon, R. M. W., G. Budéus, and B. Meon (2003), Dissolved organic carbon distribution and origin in the Nordic Seas: Exchanges with the Arctic Ocean and the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 108(C7), 3221, doi:10.1029/2002JC001594.
4. Anderson, L. G., K. Olsson, and M. Chierici (1998), A carbon budget for the Arctic Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 12(3), 455-465, doi:10.1029/98GB01372. (Pubitemid 29040800)
5. Arrigo, K. R., S. Pabi, G. L. van Dijken, and W. Maslowski (2010), Air-sea flux of CO2 in the Arctic Ocean, 1998-2003, J. Geophys. Res., 115, G04024, doi:10.1029/2009JG001224.
6. Bauerfeind, E., E.-M. Nöthig, A. Beszczynska, K. Fahl, L. Kaleschke, K. Kreker, M. Klages, T. Soltwedel, C. Lorenzen, and J. Wegner (2009), Particle sedimentation patterns in the eastern Fram Strait during 2000-2005: Results from the Arctic long-term observatory HAUSGARTEN, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 56(9), 1471-1487, doi:10.1016/j. dsr.2009.04.011.
7. Bellerby, R. G. J., A. Olsen, T. Furevik, and L. G. Anderson (2005), Response of the surface ocean CO2 system in the Nordic Seas and the Northern North Atlantic to climate change, in The Nordic Seas: An Integrated Perspective, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 158, edited by H. Drange et al., pp. 189-198, AGU, Washington, D. C.
8. Benner, R., P. Louchouarn, and R. M. W. Amon (2005), Terrigenous dissolved organic matter in the Arctic Ocean and its transport to surface and deep waters of the North Atlantic, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 19, GB2025, doi:10.1029/2004GB002398. (Pubitemid 41576424)
9. Bergström, S., and B. Carlsson (1994), River runoff to the Baltic Sea: 1950-1990, Ambio, 23(4-5), 280-287. (Pubitemid 2121727)
10. Berner, R. A. (1982), Burial of organic carbon and pyrite sulfur in the modern ocean; its geochemical and environmental significance, Am. J. Sci., 282(4), 451-473, doi:10.2475/ajs.282.4.451. (Pubitemid 12083514)
11. Björk, G., B. G. Gustafsson, and A. Stigebrandt (2001), Upper layer circulation of the Nordic seas as inferred from the spatial distribution of heat and freshwater content and potential energy, Polar Res., 20(2), 161-168, doi:10.1111/j.1751-8369.2001.tb00052.x. (Pubitemid 34046132)
12. Blindheim, J. (1989), Cascading of Barents Sea bottom water into the Norwegian Sea, Rapp. P. V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer, 188, 49-58.
13. Blindheim, J., and F. Rey (2004), Water-mass formation and distribution in the Nordic Seas during the 1990s, ICES J. Mar. Sci., 61(5), 846-863, doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2004.05.003. (Pubitemid 39234662)
14. Blindheim, J., V. Borovkov, B. Hansen, S.-A. Malmberg, W. R. Turrell, and S. Østerhus (2000), Upper layer cooling and freshening in the Norwegian Sea in relation to atmospheric forcing, Deep Sea Res., 47(4), 655-680, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(99)00070-9. (Pubitemid 30092070)
15. Børsheim, K. Y., S. M. Myklestad, and J.-A. Sneli (1999), Monthly profiles of DOC, mono-and polysaccharides at two locations in the Trondheimsfjord (Norway) during two years, Mar. Chem., 63(3-4), 255-272, doi:10.1016/S0304-4203(98)00066-8. (Pubitemid 29032190)
16. Cisewski, B., G. Budéus, and G. Krause (2003), Absolute transport estimates of total and individual water masses in the northern Greenland Sea derived from hydrographic and acoustic Doppler current profiler measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 108(C9), 3298, doi:10.1029/2002JC001530.
17. Dickson, A. G., and F. J. Millero (1987), A comparison of the equilibrium constants for the dissociation of carbonic acid in seawater media, Deep Sea Res., 34, 1733-1743, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(87)90021-5.
18. Dickson, R. R., and J. Brown (1994), The production of North Atlantic Deep Water: Sources, rates, and pathways, J. Geophys. Res., 99(C6), 12,319-12,341, doi:10.1029/94JC00530.
19. Dickson, R., B. Rudels, S. Dye, M. Karcher, J. Meincke, and I. Yashayaev (2007), Current estimates of freshwater flux through Arctic and subarctic seas, Prog. Oceanogr., 73(3-4), 210-230, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2006. 12.003. (Pubitemid 46898564)
20. Eldevik, T., F. Straneo, A. B. Sandø, and T. Furevik (2005), Pathways and export of Greenland Sea water, in The Nordic Seas: An Integrated Perspective, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 158, edited by H. Drange et al., pp. 89-103, AGU, Washington, D. C.
21. Eldevik, T., J. E. Ø. Nilsen, D. Iovino, K. A. Olsson, A. B. Sandø, and H. Drange (2009), Observed sources and variability of Nordic seas overflow, Nat. Geosci., 2, 406-410, doi:10.1038/ngeo518.
22. Fahrbach, E., J. Meincke, S. Østerhus, G. Rohardt, U. Schauer, V. Tverberg, and J. Verduin (2001), Direct measurements of volume transports through Fram Strait, Polar Res., 20(2), 217-224, doi:10.1111/j.1751-8369.2001. tb00059.x. (Pubitemid 34046139)
23. Gammelsrød, T., and B. Hackett (1981), The circulation of the Skagerrak determined by inverse methods, in The Norwegian Coastal Current, Proceedings from the Norwegian Coastal Current Symposium, Geilo, 9-12 Sept, 1980, vol. 1, edited by R. Sætre and M. Mork, pp. 311-330, Univ. of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
24. Gammon, R., J. Cline, and D. Wisegarver (1982), Chlorofluoromethanes in the northeast Pacific Ocean: Measured vertical distributions and application as transient tracers of upper ocean mixing, J. Geophys. Res., 87(C12), 9441-9454, doi:10.1029/JC087iC12p09441. (Pubitemid 13463155)
25. Gascard, J.-C., G. Raisbeck, S. Sequeira, F. Yiou, and K. A. Mork (2004), The Norwegian Atlantic Current in the Lofoten basin inferred from hydrological and tracer data (129I) and its interaction with the Norwegian Coastal Current, Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L01308, doi:10.1029/2003GL018303.
26. Gruber, N., C. D. Keeling, and N. R. Bates (2002), Interannual variability in the North Atlantic Ocean carbon sink, Science, 298(5602), 2374-2378, doi:10.1126/science.1077077. (Pubitemid 36014207)
27. Gruber, N., et al. (2009), Oceanic sources, sinks, and transport of atmospheric CO2, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 23, GB1005, doi:10.1029/ 2008GB003349.
28. Hall, T. M., T. W. N. Haine, and D. W. Waugh (2002), Inferring the concentration of anthropogenic carbon in the ocean from tracers, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 16(4), 1131, doi:10.1029/2001GB001835.
29. Hansen, B., and S. Østerhus (2000), North Atlantic-Nordic Seas exchanges, Prog. Oceanogr., 45(2), 109-208, doi:10.1016/S0079-6611(99)00052-X. (Pubitemid 30205663)
30. Hansen, B., and S. Østerhus (2007), Faroe Bank Channel overflow 1995-2005, Prog. Oceanogr., 75(4), 817-856, doi:10.1016/j.pocean. 2007.09.004. (Pubitemid 350179943)
31. Hansen, B., S. Østerhus, H. Hatun, R. Kristiansen, and K. M. H. Larsen (2003), The Iceland-Faroe inflow of Atlantic water to the Nordic Seas, Prog. Oceanogr., 59(4), 443-474, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2003.10.003. (Pubitemid 38498068)
32. Hansen, B., S. Østerhus, W. R. Turrell, S. Jónsson, H. Valdimarsson, H. Hátún, and S. M. Olsen (2008), The inflow of Atlantic Water, heat, and salt to the Nordic Seas across the Greenland-Scotland Ridge, in Arctic-Subarctic Ocean Fluxes: Defining the Role of the Northern Seas in Climate, edited by R. R. Dickson, J. Meincke, and P. Rhines, pp. 15-43, Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands.
33. Herbaut, C., and M.-N. Houssais (2009), Response of the eastern North Atlantic subpolar gyre to the North Atlantic Oscillation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L17607, doi:10.1029/2009GL039090.
34. Hjalmarsson, S., K. Wesslander, L. G. Anderson, A. Omstedt, M. Perttilä, and L. Mintrop (2008), Distribution, long-term development and mass balance calculation of total alkalinity in the Baltic Sea, Cont. Shelf Res., 28, 593-601, doi:10.1016/j.csr.2007.11.010.
35. Hjalmarsson, S., L. G. Anderson, and J. She (2010), The exchange of dissolved inorganic carbon between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea in 2006 based on measured data and water transport estimates from a 3D model, Mar. Chem., 121, 200-205, doi:10.1016/j.marchem.2010.04.008.
36. Ingvaldsen, R. B., L. Asplin, and H. Loeng (2004), The seasonal cycle in the Atlantic transport to the Barents Sea during the years 1997-2001, Cont. Shelf Res., 24(9), 1015-1032, doi:10.1016/j.csr.2004.02.011. (Pubitemid 38722347)
37. Jahnke, R. A. (1996), The global ocean flux of particulate organic carbon: Areal distribution and magnitude, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 10(1), 71-88, doi:10.1029/95GB03525. (Pubitemid 26471662)
38. Jakobsson, M. (2002), Hypsometry and volume of the Arctic Ocean and its constituent seas, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 3(5), 1028, doi:10.1029/ 2001GC000302.
39. Jeansson, E. (2005), Chemical tracers in the Nordic Seas: Studies on water masses and anthropogenic carbon, Ph.D. thesis, Göteborg Univ., Göteborg, Sweden.
40. Jeansson, E., S. Jutterström, B. Rudels, L. G. Anderson, K. A. Olsson, E. P. Jones, W. M. Smethie Jr., and J. H. Swift (2008), Sources to the East Greenland Current and its contribution to the Denmark Strait Overflow, Prog. Oceanogr., 78, 12-28, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2007.08.031.
41. Jeansson, E., K. A. Olsson, T. Tanhua, and J. L. Bullister (2010), Nordic Seas and Arctic Ocean CFC data in CARINA, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 2, 79-97, doi:10.5194/essd-2-79-2010.
42. Johnson, K. M., J. M. Sieburth, P. J. l. Williams, and L. Brändström (1987), Coulometric total carbon dioxide analysis for marine studies: Automation and calibration, Mar. Chem., 21(2), 117-133, doi:10.1016/0304-4203 (87)90033-8.
43. Jónsson, S., and H. Valdimarsson (2005), The flow of Atlantic water to the North Icelandic Shelf and its relation to the drift of cod larvae, ICES J. Mar. Sci., 62(7), 1350-1359, doi:10.1016/j.icesjms.2005.05.003. (Pubitemid 41621976)
44. Jutterström, S., and L. G. Anderson (2010), Uptake of CO2 by the Arctic Ocean in a changing climate, Mar. Chem., 122, 96-104, doi:10.1016/j. marchem.2010.07.002.
45. Jutterström, S., and E. Jeansson (2008), Anthropogenic carbon in the East Greenland Current, Prog. Oceanogr., 78, 29-36, doi:10.1016/j.pocean. 2008.04.001.
46. Jutterström, S., E. Jeansson, L. G. Anderson, R. Bellerby, E. P. Jones, W. M. Smethie Jr., and J. H. Swift (2008), Evaluation of anthropogenic carbon in the Nordic Seas using observed relationships of N, P and C versus CFCs, Prog. Oceanogr., 78, 78-84, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2007. 06.001.
47. Key, R. M., et al. (2010), The CARINA data synthesis project: Introduction and overview, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 2, 105-121, doi:10.5194/essd-2-105-2010.
48. Kivimäe, C., R. G. J. Bellerby, A. Fransson, M. Reigstad, and T. Johannessen (2010), A carbon budget for the Barents Sea, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 57, 1532-1542, doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2010.05.006.
49. Lewis, E., and D. W. R. Wallace (1998), Program developed for CO2 system calculations, Rep. ORNL/CDIAC-105, Carbon Dioxide Inf. Anal. Cent., Oak Ridge Natl. Lab., U.S. Dep. of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn.
50. Lundberg, L., and P. M. Haugan (1996), A Nordic Seas-Arctic Ocean carbon budget from volume flows and inorganic carbon data, Global Bio-geochem. Cycles, 10(3), 493-510, doi:10.1029/96GB00359.
51. Macrander, A., U. Send, H. Valdimarsson, S. Jónsson, and R. H. Käse (2005), Interannual changes in the overflow from the Nordic Seas into the Atlantic Ocean through Denmark Strait, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L06606, doi:10.1029/2004GL021463. (Pubitemid 40771667)
52. Mauritzen, C. (1996), Production of dense overflow waters feeding the North Atlantic across the Greenland-Scotland Ridge. Part 1: Evidence for a revised circulation scheme, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 43(6), 769-806, doi:10.1016/0967-0637(96)00037-4. (Pubitemid 27093956)
53. Mehrbach, C., C. H. Culberson, J. E. Hawlay, and R. M. Pytkowicz (1973), Measurements of the apparent dissociation constants of carbonic acid in seawater at atmospheric pressure, Limnol. Oceanogr., 18, 897-907, doi:10.4319/lo.1973. 18.6.0897.
54. Millero, F. J. (1979), The thermodynamics of the carbonate system in seawater at atmospheric pressure, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 43, 1651-1661.
55. Milliman, J. D. (1993), Production and accumulation of calcium carbonate in the ocean: Budget of a nonsteady state, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 7(4), 927-957, doi:10.1029/93GB02524. (Pubitemid 24398314)
56. Nilsen, J. E. Ø., and E. Falck (2006), Variations of mixed layer properties in the Norwegian Sea for the period 1948-1999, Prog. Oceanogr., 70(1), 58-90, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2006.03.014. (Pubitemid 44041031)
57. Nilsson, J., G. Björk, B. Rudels, P. Winsor, and D. Torres (2008), Liquid freshwater transport and Polar Surface Water characteristics in the East Greenland Current during the AO-02 Oden expedition, Prog. Oceanogr., 78(1), 45-57, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2007.06.002.
58. Nondal, G., R. G. J. Bellerby, A. Olsen, T. Johannessen, and J. Olafsson (2009), Optimal evaluation of the surface ocean CO2 system in the northern North Atlantic using data from voluntary observing ships, Limnol. Oceanogr. Methods, 7, 109-118, doi:10.4319/lom.2009.7.109.
59. Olsen, A. (2009a), Nordic Seas total dissolved inorganic carbon data in CARINA, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 1, 35-43, doi:10.5194/essd-1-35-2009.
60. Olsen, A. (2009b), Nordic Seas total alkalinity data in CARINA, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 1, 77-86, doi:10.5194/essd-1-77-2009.
61. Olsen, A., R. G. J. Bellerby, T. Johannessen, A. M. Omar, and I. Skjelvan (2003), Interannual variability in the wintertime air-sea flux of carbon dioxide in the northern North Atlantic, 1981-2001, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 50(10-11), 1323-1338, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(03)00144-4. (Pubitemid 37450137)
62. Olsen, A., et al. (2006), Magnitude and origin of the anthropogenic CO2 increase and 13C Suess effect in the Nordic seas since 1981, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 20, GB3027, doi:10.1029/2005GB002669. (Pubitemid 46761046)
63. Olsen, A., et al. (2009), Overview of the Nordic Seas CARINA data and salinity measurements, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 1, 25-34, doi:10.5194/essd-1-25- 2009.
64. Olsen, A., A. M. Omar, E. Jeansson, L. G. Anderson, and R. G. J. Bellerby (2010), Nordic Seas transit-time distributions and anthropogenic CO2, J. Geophys. Res., 115, C05005, doi:10.1029/2009JC005488.
65. Østerhus, S., W. R. Turrell, S. Jónsson, and B. Hansen (2005), Measured volume, heat, and salt fluxes from Atlantic to the Arctic Mediterranean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L07603, doi:10.1029/2004GL022188. (Pubitemid 40965341)
66. Pérez, F. F., M. Vázquez-Rodríguez, H. Mercier, A. Velo, P. Lherminier, and A. F. Ríos (2010), Trends of anthropogenic CO2 storage in North Atlantic water masses, Biogeosciences, 7, 1789-1807, doi:10.5194/bg-7-1789-2010.
67. Quadfasel, D., and R. Käse (2007), Present-day manifestation of the Nordic Seas overflows, in Ocean Circulation: Mechanisms and Impacts, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 173, edited by A. Schmittner, J. C. H. Chiang, and S. Hemming, pp. 75-90, AGU, Washington, D. C.
68. Rudels, B. (1987), On the mass balance of the Polar Ocean, with special emphasis on the Fram Strait, Norsk Polarinst. Skrifter, 188, 53 pp.
69. Rudels, B., H. J. Friedrich, and D. Quadfasel (1999), The Arctic Circumpo-lar Boundary Current, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 46(6-7), 1023-1062, doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(99)00015-6. (Pubitemid 29303180)
70. Rudels, B., R. Meyer, E. Fahrbach, V. V. Ivanov, S. Østerhus, D. Quadfasel, U. Schauer, V. Tverberg, and R. A. Woodgate (2000), Water mass distribution in Fram Strait and over the Yermak Plateau in summer 1997, Ann. Geophys., 18(6), 687-705, doi:10.1007/s00585-000-0687-5.
71. Rudels, B., G. Björk, J. Nilsson, P. Winsor, I. Lake, and C. Nohr (2005), The interaction between waters from the Arctic Ocean and the Nordic Seas north of Fram Strait and along the East Greenland Current: Results from the Arctic Ocean-02 Oden expedition, J. Mar. Syst., 55(1-2), 1-30, doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2004.06.008. (Pubitemid 40359228)
72. Sabine, C. L., et al. (2004), The oceanic sink for anthropogenic CO2, Science, 305, 367-371, doi:10.1126/science.1097403. (Pubitemid 38938147)
73. Sarmiento, J. L., and N. Gruber (2002), Sinks for anthropogenic carbon, Phys. Today, 55(8), 30-36, doi:10.1063/1.1510279.
74. Sarmiento, J. L., P. Monfray, E. Maier-Reimer, O. Aumont, R. J. Murnane, and J. C. Orr (2000), Sea-air CO2 fluxes and carbon transport: A comparison of three ocean general circulation models, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14(4), 1267-1281, doi:10.1029/1999GB900062. (Pubitemid 32281838)
75. Saunders, P. M.(1990), Cold outflow from the Faroe Bank Channel, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 20,29-43 doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1990)020〈0029: COFTFB〉2.0.CO;2.
76. Saunders, P. M.(1996), The flux of dense cold overflow water southeast of Iceland, J. Phys. Oceanogr., 26, 85-95, doi:10.1175/1520-0485(1996) 026〈0085:TFODCO〉2.0.CO;2.
77. Schauer, U., and A. Beszczynska-Möller (2009), Problems with estimation and interpretation of oceanic heat transport-Conceptual remarks for the case of Fram Strait in the Arctic Ocean, Ocean Sci., 5, 487-494, doi:10.5194/os-5-487-2009.
78. Schauer, U., E. Fahrbach, S. Østerhus, and G. Rohardt (2004), Arctic warming through the Fram Strait: Oceanic heat transport from 3 years of measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 109, C06026, doi:10.1029/2003JC001823. (Pubitemid 39174576)
79. Schlüter, M., E. J. Sauter, A. Schäfer, and W. Ritzrau (2000), Spatial budget of organic carbon flux to the seafloor of the northern North Atlantic (60°N-80°N), Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 14, 329-340, doi:10.1029/1999GB900043.
80. Schneider, B., G. Nausch, K. Nagel, and N. Wasmund (2003), The surface water CO2 budget for the Baltic Proper: A new way to determine nitrogen fixation, J. Mar. Syst., 42(1-2), 53-64, doi:10.1016/S0924-7963(03) 00064-2.
81. Schuster, U., A. J. Watson, N. R. Bates, A. Corbiere, M. Gonzalez-Davila, N. Metzl, D. Pierrot, and M. Santana-Casiano (2009), Trends in North Atlantic sea-surface fCO2 from 1990 to 2006, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 56(8-10), 620-629, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.12.011.
82. Skagseth, Ø. (2008), Recirculation of Atlantic Water in the western Barents Sea, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L11606, doi:10.1029/2008GL033785.
83. Skagseth, Ø., K. F. Drinkwater, and E. Terrile (2011), Wind-and buoyancy-induced transport of the Norwegian Coastal Current in the Barents Sea, J. Geophys. Res., 116, C08007, doi:10.1029/2011JC006996.
84. Skjelvan, I., et al. (2005), A review of the inorganic carbon cycle of the Nordic Seas and the Barents Sea, in The Nordic Seas: An Integrated Perspective, Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 158, edited by H. Drange et al., pp. 157-175, AGU, Washington, D. C.
85. Smedsrud, L. H., R. Ingvaldsen, J. E. Ø. Nilsen, and Ø. Skagseth (2010), Heat in the Barents Sea: Transport, storage, and surface fluxes, Ocean Sci., 6, 219-234, doi:10.5194/os-6-219-2010.
86. Sutherland, D. A., and R. S. Pickart (2008), The East Greenland Coastal Current: Structure, variability, and forcing, Prog. Oceanogr., 78, 58-77, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2007.09.006.
87. Takahashi, T., et al. (2009), Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 56(8-10), 554-577, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2008. 12.009.
88. Tanhua, T., A. Körtzinger, K. Friis, D. W. Waugh, and D. W. R. Wallace (2007), An estimate of anthropogenic CO2 inventory from decadal changes in oceanic carbon content, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A., 104(9), 3037-3042, doi:10.1073/pnas.0606574104. (Pubitemid 46364109)
89. Tanhua, T., D. W. Waugh, and D. W. R. Wallace (2008), Use of SF6 to estimate anthropogenic CO2 in the upper ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 113, C04037, doi:10.1029/2007JC004416.
90. Tanhua, T., E. P. Jones, E. Jeansson, S. Jutterström, W. M. Smethie Jr., D. W. R. Wallace, and L. G. Anderson (2009), Ventilation of the Arctic Ocean: Mean ages and inventories of anthropogenic CO2 and CFC-11, J. Geophys. Res., 114, C01002, doi:10.1029/2008JC004868.
91. Tanhua, T., S. van Heuven, R. M. Key, A. Velo, A. Olsen, and C. Schirnick (2010), Quality control procedures and methods of the CARINA database, Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 2, 35-49, doi:10.5194/essd-2-35-2010.
92. Thomas, H., Y. Bozec, H. J. W. De Baar, K. Elkalay, M. Frankignoulle, L.-S. Schiettecatte, G. Kattner, and A. Borges (2005), The carbon budget of the North Sea, Biogeosciences, 2, 87-96, doi:10.5194/bg-2-87-2005. (Pubitemid 40960819)
93. Thomas, H., A. E. F. Prowe, I. D. Lima, S. C. Doney, R. Wanninkhof, R. J. Greatbatch, U. Schuster, and A. Corbière (2008), Changes in the North Atlantic Oscillation influence CO2 uptake in the North Atlantic over the past 2 decades, Global Biogeochem. Cycles, 22, GB4027, doi:10.1029/2007GB003167.
94. Turrell, W. R., G. Slesser, R. D. Adams, R. Payne, and P. A. Gillibrand (1999), Decadal variability in the composition of Faroe Shetland Channel bottom water, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 46(1), 1-25, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00067-3. (Pubitemid 29010030)
95. Ullman, D. J., G. A. McKinley, V. Bennington, and S. Dutkiewicz (2009), Trends in the North Atlantic carbon sink: 1992-2006, Global Biogeo-chem. Cycles, 23, GB4011, doi:10.1029/2008GB003383.
96. Vinje, T. (2001), Fram Strait ice fluxes and atmospheric circulation: 1950-2000, J. Clim., 14(16), 3508-3517, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001) 014〈3508:FSIFAA〉2.0.CO;2.
97. Watson, A. J., et al. (2009), Tracking the variable North Atlantic sink for atmospheric CO2, Science, 326(5958), 1391-1393, doi:10.1126/science.1177394.
98. Waugh, D. W., T. W. N. Haine, and T. M. Hall (2004), Transport times and anthropogenic carbon in the subpolar North Atlantic Ocean, Deep Sea Res., Part I, 51(11), 1475-1491. (Pubitemid 39366818)
99. Waugh, D. W., T. M. Hall, B. I. McNeil, R. Key, and R. J. Matear (2006), Anthropogenic CO2 in the oceans estimated using transit time distributions, Tellus, Ser. B, 58, 376-389.
100. Wheeler, P. A., M. Gosselin, E. Sherr, D. Thibaultc, D. L. Kirchman, R. Benner, and T. E. Whitledge (1996), Active cycling of organic carbon in the central Arctic Ocean, Nature, 380(6576), 697-699, doi:10.1038/380697a0.
101. Wheeler, P. A., J. M. Watkins, and R. L. Hansing (1997), Nutrients, organic carbon and organic nitrogen in the upper water column of the Arctic Ocean: Implications for the sources of dissolved organic carbon, Deep Sea Res., Part II, 44(8), 1571-1592, doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(97)00051-9. (Pubitemid 28159077)