The use of specialized training techniques to maximize muscle hypertrophy

Strength and Conditioning Journal

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 60-65

  Schoenfeld, Brad ^a  

^a Global Fitness Services   (United States)

Author keywords

Drop sets; Forced repetitions; Heavy negatives; Muscle development; Muscle hypertrophy; Paired sets; Supersets

Indexed keywords

EID: 82955200104     PISSN: 15241602     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1519/SSC.0b013e3182221ec2     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Ahtiainen JP, Pakarinen A, Kraemer WJ, and Hakkinen K. Acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses and recovery to forced vs maximum repetitions multiple resistance exercises. Int J Sports Med 24: 410-418, 2003. (Pubitemid 37011538)
2. Aronson D, Boppart MD, Dufresne SD, Fielding RA, and Goodyear LJ. Exercise stimulates c-Jun NH2 kinase activity and c-Jun transcriptional activity in human skeletal muscle. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 251:106-110, 1998. (Pubitemid 28498071)
3. Aronson D, Dufresne SD, and Goodyear LJ. Contractile activity stimulates the c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase pathway in rat skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 272: 25636-25640, 1997. (Pubitemid 27438878)
4. Baker D and Newton RU. Acute effect on power output of alternating an agonist and antagonist muscle exercise during complex training. J Strength Cond Res 19: 202-205, 2005. (Pubitemid 40417278)
5. Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, Gower BA, Hunter GR, Goodman A, McLafferty CL, and Urban RJ. Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-1 and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 280: E383-E390, 2001.
6. Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, Kline WO, Stover GL, Bauerlein R, Zlotchenko E, Scrimgeour A, Lawrence JC, Glass DJ, and Yancopoulos GD. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol 3: 1014-1019, 2001. (Pubitemid 34428747)
7. Boppart MD, Aronson D, Gibson L, Roubenoff R, Abad LW, Bean J, Goodyear LJ, and Fielding RA. Eccentric exercise markedly increases c-Jun NH 2 terminal kinase activity in human skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 87: 1668-1673, 1999.
8. Buresh R, Berg K, and French J. The effect of resistive exercise rest interval on hormonal response, strength, and hypertrophy with training. J Strength Cond Res 23: 62-71, 2009.
9. Caiozzo VJ, Laird T, Chow K, Prietto CA, and McMaster WC. The use of precontractions to enhance the in vivo force-velocity relationship. Med Sci Sports Exerc 14: 162, 1982.
10. Crameri RM, Langberg H, Magnusson P, Jensen CH, Schroder HD, Olesen JL, and Kjaer M. Changes in satellite cells in human skeletal muscle after a single bout of high intensity exercise. J Physiol 558: 333-340, 2004. (Pubitemid 39077412)
11. Dunn SE, Burns JL, and Michel RN. Calcineurin is required for skeletal muscle hypertrophy. J Biol Chem 274: 21908-21912, 1999.
12. Dunn SE, Chin ER, and Michel RN. Matching of calcineurin activity to upstream effectors is critical for skeletal muscle fiber growth. J Cell Biol 151: 663-672, 2000.
13. Eliasson J, Elfegoun T, Nilsson J, Kohnke R, Ekblom B, and Blomstrand E. Maximal lengthening contractions increase p70 S6 kinase phosphorylation in human skeletal muscle in the absence of nutritional supply. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol 291: E1197-E1205, 2006. (Pubitemid 44904026)
14. Evans WJ. Effects of exercise on senescent muscle. Clin Orthop RelatRes 403(Suppl): S211-S220, 2002. (Pubitemid 35346008)
15. Farthing JP and Chilibeck PD. The effects of eccentric and concentric training at different velocities on muscle hypertrophy. Eur J Appl Physiol 89: 578-586, 2003. (Pubitemid 37080733)
16. Friedmann B, Kinscherf R, Vorwald S, Muller, H, Kucera K, Borisch S, Richter G, Bartsch P, and Billeter R. Muscular adaptations to computer-guided strength training with eccentric overload. Acta Physiol Scand 182: 77-88, 2004. (Pubitemid 39223069)
17. Fry AC and Kraemer WJ. Resistance exercise overtraining and overreaching: Neuroendocrine responses. Sports Med 23: 106-129, 1997. (Pubitemid 27116517)
18. Goldspink G. Gene expression in skeletal muscle. Biochem Soc Trans 30: 285-290, 2002.
19. Gordon SE, Kraemer WJ, Vos NH, Lynch JM, and Knuttgen HG. Effect of acid-base balance on the growth hormone response to acute high-intensity cycle exercise. J Appl Physiol 76: 821-829, 1994. (Pubitemid 24075632)
20. Goto K, Ishii N, Kizuka T, and Takamatsu K. The impact of metabolic stress on hormonal responses and muscular adaptations. Med Sci Sports Exerc 37: 955-963, 2005. (Pubitemid 40847457)
21. Goto K, Nagasawa M, Yanagisawa O, Kizuka T, Ishii N, and Takamatsu K. Muscular adaptations to combinations of high-and low-intensity resistance exercises. J Strength Cond Res 18: 730-737, 2004. (Pubitemid 39627310)
22. Goto K, Sato K, and Takamatsu K. A single set of low intensity resistance exercise immediately following high intensity resistance exercise stimulates growth hormone secretion in men. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 43: 243-249, 2003. (Pubitemid 36807543)
23. Grabiner MD. Maximum rate of force development is increased by antagonist conditioning contraction. J Appl Physiol 77: 807-811, 1994. (Pubitemid 24258315)
24. Grabiner MD and Hawthorne DL. Conditions of isokinetic knee flexion that enhance knee extension. Med Sci Sports Exerc 22: 235-240, 1990. (Pubitemid 20140166)
25. Grabiner MD and Owings TM. EMG differences between concentric and eccentric maximum voluntary contractions are evident prior to movement onset. Exp Brain Res 145: 505-511, 2002.
26. Hakkinen K, Pakarinen A, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen A, Valkeinen H, and Alen M. Selective muscle hypertrophy, changes in EMG and force, and serum hormones during strength training in older women. J Appl Physiol 91: 569-580, 2001. (Pubitemid 32681084)
27. Hameed M, Lange KH, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Kjaer M, Harridge SD, and Goldspink G. The effect of recombinant human growth hormone and resistance training on IGF-I mRNA expression in the muscles of elderly men. J Physiol 555: 231-240, 2004. (Pubitemid 38313073)
28. Hather BM, Tesch PA, Buchanan P, and Dudley GA. Influence of eccentric actions on skeletal-muscle adaptations to resistance training. Acta Physiol Scand 143: 177-185, 1991.
29. Haxton HA. Absolute muscle force in the ankle flexors of man. J Physiol 103: 267-273, 1944.
30. Higbie EJ, Cureton KJ, Warren GL III, and Prior BM. Effects of concentric and eccentric training on muscle strength, cross-sectional area, and neural activation. J Appl Physiol 81: 2173-2181, 1996. (Pubitemid 26384547)
31. Hill M and Goldspink G. Expression and splicing of the insulin-like growth factor gene in rodent muscle is associated with muscle satellite (stem) cell activation following local tissue damage. J Physiol 549: 409-418, 2003. (Pubitemid 36701754)
32. Holm L, Reitelseder S, Pedersen TG, Doessing S, Petersen SG, Flyvbjerg A, Andersen JL, Aagaard P, and Kjaer M. Changes in muscle size and MHC composition in response to resistance exercise with heavy and light loading intensity. J Appl Physiol 105: 1454-1461, 2008.
33. Hornberger TA and Chien S. Mechanical stimuli and nutrients regulate rapamycin-sensitive signaling through distinct mechanisms in skeletal muscle. J Cell Biochem 97: 1207-1216, 2006.
34. Hornberger TA, Chu WK, Mak YW, Hsiung JW, Huang SA, and Chien S. The role of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling in skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 4741-4746, 2006.
35. Hortobagyi, T, Barrier J, Beard D, Braspennincx J, and Koens J. Greater initial adaptations to submaximal muscle lengthening than maximal shortening. J Appl Physiol 81: 1677-1682, 1996. (Pubitemid 26349625)
36. Iida K, Itoh E, Kim DS, del Rincon JP, Coschigano KT, Kopchick JJ, and Thorner MO. Muscle mechano growth factor is preferentially induced by growth hormone in growth hormone-deficient lit/lit mice. J Physiol 560: 341-349, 2004. (Pubitemid 39440098)
37. Ikai M and Fukunaga T. Calculation of muscle strength per unit cross-sectional area of human muscle by means of ultrasonic measurement. Int Z Angew Physiol 26: 26-32, 1968.
38. Izquierdo M, Ibanez J, Gonzalez-Badillo JJ, Hakkinen K, Ratamess NA, Kraemer WJ, French DN, Eslava J, Altadill A, Asianin X, and Gorostiaga EM. Differential effects of strength training leading to failure versus not to failure on hormonal responses, strength and muscle power increases. J Appl Physiol 100, 1647-1656, 2006.
39. Jacinto E and Hall MN. Tor signalling in bugs, brain and brawn. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 4: 117-126, 2003. (Pubitemid 36172695)
40. Kamimura T, Yoshioka K, Ito S, and Kusakabe T. Increased rate of force development of elbow flexors by antagonist conditioning contraction. Hum Mov Sci 28: 407-414, 2009.
41. Kelleher AR, Hackney KJ, Fairchild TJ, Keslacy S, and Ploutz-Snyder LL. The metabolic costs of reciprocal supersets vs. traditional resistance exercise in young recreationally active adults. J Strength Cond Res 24: 1043-1051, 2010.
42. Kosek DJ, Kim JS, Petrella JK, Cross JM, and Bamman MM. Efficacy of 3 days/wk resistance training on myofiber hypertrophy and myogenic mechanisms in young vs. older adults. JAppl Physiol 101: 531-544, 2006. (Pubitemid 44162363)
43. Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen, K, Newton RU, Nindl BC, VolekJS, McCormickM, Gotshalk LA, Gordon SE, Fleck SJ, Campbell WW, Putukian M, and Evans WJ. Effects of heavy-resistance training on hormonal response patterns in younger vs. older men. JAppl Physiol 87: 982-992, 1999. (Pubitemid 29436974)
44. Kramer HF and Goodyear LJ. Exercise MAPK, and NF-kappaB signaling in skeletal muscle. J Appl Physiol 103: 388-395, 2007. (Pubitemid 47092316)
45. Linnamo V, Strojnik V, and Komi PV. EMG power spectrum and features of the superimposed M-wave during voluntary eccentric and concentric actions at different activation levels. Eur J Appl Physiol 86:534-540, 2002. (Pubitemid 41399049)
46. Maughan RJ, Watson JS, and Weir J. Strength and cross-sectional area of human skeletal muscle. J Physiol 338: 37-49, 1983. (Pubitemid 13099474)
47. Maynard J and Ebben WP. The effects of antagonist prefatigue on agonist torque and electromyography. J Strength Cond Res 17: 469-474, 2003. (Pubitemid 37152345)
48. McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Dickinson A, Pattany PM, and Fleck SJ. Muscle fiber hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and capillary density in college men after resistance training. J Appl Physiol 81: 2004-2012, 1996. (Pubitemid 26384526)
49. McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Fleck SJ, Dickinson A, and Kraemer WJ. Acute and chronic hormonal responses to resistance training designed to promote muscle hypertrophy. Can J Appl Physiol 24: 96-107, 1999.
50. McHugh MP, Connolly DA, Eston RG, and Gleim GW. Electromyographic analysis of exercise resulting in symptoms of muscle damage. J Sport Sci 18: 163-172, 2000. (Pubitemid 30125240)
51. Moore DR, Phillips SM, Babraj JA, Smith K, and Rennie MJ. Myofibrillar and collagen protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle in young men after maximal shortening and lengthening contractions. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metabol 288: E1153-E1159, 2005. (Pubitemid 40726802)
52. Mulligan SE, Fleck SJ, Gordon SE, and Koziris LP. Influence of resistance exercise volume on serum growth hormone and cortisol concentrations in women. J Strength Cond Res 10, 256-262, 1996.
53. Nardone A, Romano, C, and Schieppati M. Selective recruitment of high-threshold human motor units during voluntary isotonic lengthening of active muscles. J Physiol 409: 451-471, 1989. (Pubitemid 19052994)
54. Norrbrand L, Fluckey JD, Pozzo M, and Tesch PA. Resistance training using eccentric overload induces early adaptations in skeletal muscle size. Eur J Appl Physiol 102: 271-281, 1989.
55. Ojasto T and Hakkinen K. Effects of different accentuated eccentric loads on acute neuromuscular, growth hormone, and blood lactate responses during a hypertrophic protocol. J Strength Cond Res 23: 946-953, 2009.
56. Pauletto B. Choice and order of exercises. NatlStrength Cond Assoc J 8: 71-73, 1986.
57. Robbins DW, Young WB, and Behm DG. The effect of an upper body agonist-antagonist resistance training protocol on volume load and efficiency. J Strength Cond Res 24: 2632-2640, 2010.
58. Ronnestad BR, Egeland W, Kvamme NH, Refsnes PE, Kadi F, and Raastad T. Dissimilar effects of one-and three-set strength training on strength and muscle mass gains in upper and lower body in untrained subjects. J Strength Cond Res 21: 157-163, 2007.
59. Rooney KJ, Herbert RD, and Balnave RJF. Fatigue contributes to the strength training stimulus. Med Sci Sports Exerc 26: 1160-1164, 1994. (Pubitemid 24282418)
60. Roux PP and Blenis J. ERK and p38 MAPK-activated protein kinases: A family of protein kinases with diverse biological functions. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 68: 320-344, 2004. (Pubitemid 38756868)
61. Schoenfeld BJ. The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. J Strength Cond Res 24: 2857-2875, 2010.
62. Schott J, McCully K, and Rutherford OM. The role of metabolites in strength training. II. Short versus long isometric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol 71: 337-341, 1995.
63. Seynnes OR, de Boer M, and Narici MV. Early skeletal muscle hypertrophy and architectural changes in response to high-intensity resistance training. J Appl Physiol 102: 368-373, 2007 (Pubitemid 46089787)
64. Shepstone TN, Tang JE, Dallaire S, Schuenke MD, Staron RS, and Phillips SM. Short-term high-vs. low-velocity isokinetic lengthening training results in greater hypertrophy of the elbow flexors in young men. J Appl Physiol 98: 1768-1776, 2005. (Pubitemid 40570788)
65. Shinohara M, Kouzaki M, Yoshihisa T, and Fukunaga T. Efficacy of tourniquet ischemia for strength training with low resistance. Eur J Appl Physiol 77: 189-191, 1998. (Pubitemid 28090021)
66. Smith RC and Rutherford OM. The role of metabolites in strength training. I. A comparison of eccentric and concentric contractions. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 71: 332-336, 1995.
67. Suga T, Okita K, Morita N, Yokota T, Hirabayashi K, Horiuchi M, Takada S, Takahashi T, Omokawa M, Kinugawa S, and Tsutsui H. Intramuscular metabolism during low-intensity resistance exercise with blood flow restriction. J Appl Physiol 106: 1119-1124, 2009.
68. Takarada Y, Nakamura Y, Aruga S, Onda T, Miyazaki S, and Ishii N. Rapid increase in plasma growth hormone after low-intensity resistance exercise with vascular occlusion. JApplPhysiol88: 61-65, 2000. (Pubitemid 30053828)
69. Takarada Y, Takazawa H, Sato Y, Takebayashi S, Tanaka Y, and Ishii N. Effects of resistance exercise combined with moderate vascular occlusion on muscular function in humans. J Appl Physiol 88: 2097-2106, 2000. (Pubitemid 30453915)
70. Tesch PA. Skeletal muscle adaptations consequent to long-term heavy resistance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 20(5 Suppl): S132-S134, 1988. (Pubitemid 18266400)
71. Thomas G and Hall MN. TOR signalling and control of cell growth. Curr Opin Cell Biol 9: 782-787, 1997. (Pubitemid 27517266)
72. Toigo M and Boutellier U. New fundamental resistance exercise determinants of molecular and cellular muscle adaptations. Eur J Appl Physiol 97: 643-663, 2006. (Pubitemid 44144998)
73. Vandenburgh HH. Motion into mass: How does tension stimulate muscle growth? Med Sci Sports Exerc 19(5 Suppl): S142-S149, 1987.
74. Vierck J, O'Reilly B, Hossner K, Antonio J, Byrne K, Bucci L, and Dodson M. Satellite cell regulation following myotrauma caused by resistance exercise. Cell Biol Int 24: 263-272, 2000.
75. Willardson JM. The application of training to failure in periodized multiple-set resistance exercise programs. J Strength Cond Res 21: 628-631, 2007.
76. Yu J, Gand Thornell LE. Desminandactin alterations in human muscles affected by delayed onset muscle soreness: A high resolution immunocytochemical study. Histochem Cell Biol 118: 171-179, 2002. (Pubitemid 34983974)