Personality processes: Mechanisms by which personality traits "get outside the skin"

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 63, Issue , 2012, Pages 315-339

  Hampson, Sarah E ^a  

^a OREGON RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

Author keywords

Constraint; Mediation; Moderation; Negative emotionality; Positive emotionality; Social cognition

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; EMOTION; HUMAN; PERCEPTION; PERSONALITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR;

EMOTIONS; HUMANS; PERSONALITY; SOCIAL BEHAVIOR; SOCIAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 82955169657     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: 15452085     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100419     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. Ajzen I. 1985. From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior. In Action-Control: From Cognition to Behavior, ed. J Kuh, J Beckman, pp. 11-39. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer
2. Ajzen I. 1991. The theory of planned behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Dec. 50:179-211
3. Ashton MC, Lee K. 2007. Empirical, theoretical, and practical advantages of the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 11:150-66
4. Back MD, Schmukle SC, Egloff B. 2009. Predicting actual behavior from the explicit and implicit self-concept of personality. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 97:533-48
5. Baron RM, Kenny DA. 1986. The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic and statistical considerations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 51:1173-82
6. Barrick MR, Mount MK. 1991. The Big Five personality dimensions and job performance: a meta-analysis. Pers. Psychol. 44:1-26
7. Baumeister RF, Vohs KD, Tice DM. 2007. The strength model of self-control. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:396-403
8. Bogg T. 2008. Conscientiousness, the transtheoretical model of change, and exercise: a neo-socioanalytic integration of trait and social-cognitive frameworks in the prediction of behavior. J. Personal. 76:775-802
9. Bogg T, Finn PR. 2010. A self-regulatory model of behavioral disinhibition in late adolescence: integrating personality traits, externalizing psychopathology, and cognitive capacity. J. Personal. 78:441-70
10. Bogg T, Roberts BW. 2004. Conscientiousness and health-related behaviors: a meta-analysis of the leading behavioral contributors to mortality. Psychol. Bull. 130:887-919 (Pubitemid 39508393)
11. Bogg T, Voss MW, Wood D, Roberts BW. 2008. A hierarchical investigation of personality and behavior: examining neo-socioanalytic models of health-related outcomes. J. Res. Personal. 42:183-207
12. Bolger N, Schilling EA. 1991. Personality and the problems of everyday life: the role of neuroticism inexposure and reactivity to daily stressors. J. Personal. 59:355-86
13. Canli T. 2006. Genomic imaging of extraversion. In Biology of Personality and Individual Differences, ed. T Canli, pp. 93-115. New York: Guilford
14. Carver CS. 2005. Impulse and constraint: perspectives from personality psychology, convergence with theory in other areas, and potential for integration. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 9:312-33 (Pubitemid 43076159)
15. Carver CS, Connor-Smith J. 2010. Personality and coping. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 61:679-704
16. Caspi A, Roberts BW, Shiner R. 2005. Personality development. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56:453-84
17. Cervone D. 2004. The architecture of personality. Psychol. Rev. 111:183-204 (Pubitemid 38157082)
18. Cervone D. 2005. Personality architecture: within-person structures and processes. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 56:423-52 (Pubitemid 40300792)
19. Cervone D, Caldwell TL, Fiori M, Orom H, Shadel WG, et al. 2008. What underlies appraisals? Experimentally testing a knowledge-and-appraisal model of personality architecture among smokers contemplating high-risk situations. J. Personal. 76:929-67
20. Chapman BP, Fiscella K, Kawachi I, Duberstein PR. 2010. Personality, socioeconomic status, and all-cause mortality in the United States. Am. J. Epidemiol. 171:83-92
21. Charles ST, Gatz M, Kato K, Pedersen NL. 2008. Physical health twenty-five years later: the predictive ability of neuroticism. Health Psychol. 27:369-78 (Pubitemid 352033747)
22. Clark LA, Watson D. 2008. Temperament: an organizing paradigm for trait psychology. See John et al. 2008, pp. 265-86
23. Cloninger CR. 1987. A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44:573-88 (Pubitemid 17082099)
24. Conner MT, Grogan S, Fry G, Gough B, Higgins AR. 2009. Direct, mediated and moderated impacts of personality variables on smoking initiation in adolescents. Psychol. Health 24:1085-104
25. Cooper ML. 2010. Toward a person X situation model of sexual risk-taking behaviors: illuminating the conditional effects of traits across sexual situations and relationship contexts. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 98:319-41
26. Cooper ML, Barber LL, Zhaoyang R, Talley AE. 2011. Motivational pursuits in the context of human sexual relationships. J. Personal. In Press
27. Corr PJ. 2006. Understanding Biological Psychology. Oxford, UK: Blackwell
28. Costa PT, McCrae RR. 1987. Neuroticism, somatic complaints, and disease: Is the bark worse than the bite? J. Personal. 55:299-316
29. Costa PT, McCrae RR. 1992. Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) Professional Manual. Odessa, FL: Psychol. Assess. Resourc.
30. De Bruijn G-J, Brug J, Van Lenthe FJ. 2009. Neuroticism, conscientiousness and fruit consumption: exploring mediator and moderator effects in the theory of planned behavior. Psychol. Health 24:1051-69
31. Denissen JJA, Penke L. 2008. Neuroticism predicts reactions to cues of social inclusion. Eur. J. Personal. 22:497-517
32. Depue RA. 2006. Interpersonal behavior and the structure of personality. In Biology of Personality and Individual Differences, ed. T Canli, pp. 60-92. New York: Guilford
33. DeWall CN, Deckman T, Pond RS, Bonser I. 2011. Belongingness as a core personality trait: how social exclusion influences social functioning and personality expression. J. Personal. In Press
34. Digman JM. 1990. Personality structure: emergence of the five-factor model. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 41:417-40
35. Duncan TE, Duncan SC, Strycker LA. 2006. An Introduction to Latent Variable Growth Curve Modeling Concepts, Issues, and Applications. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
36. Edmonds GE, Bogg T, Roberts BW. 2009. Are personality and behavioral measures of impulse control convergent or distinct predictors of health behaviors? J. Res. Personal. 43:806-14
37. Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL, Fabes RA, Reiser M, Cumberland A, et al. 2004. The relations of effortful control and impulsivity to children's resiliency and adjustment. Child Dev. 75:25-46 (Pubitemid 38361156)
38. Elliot AJ, Thrash TM. 2010. Approach and avoidance temperament as basic dimensions of personality. J. Personal. 78:865-906
39. Evans DE, Rothbart MK. 2007. Development of a model for adult temperament. J. Res. Personal. 41:868-88
40. Eysenck HJ, Eysenck MW. 1985. Personality and Individual Differences: A Natural Science Approach. New York: Plenum
41. Feltman R, Robinson MD, Ode S. 2009. Mindfulness as a moderator of neuroticism-outcome relations: a self-regulation perspective. J. Res. Personal. 43:953-61
42. Fleeson W, Malanos A, Achille N. 2002. An intra-individual, process approach to the relationship between extraversion and positive affect: Is acting extraverted as "good" as being extraverted? J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 83:1409-22
43. Friedman HS. 2000. Long-term relations of personality and health: dynamisms, mechanisms, tropisms. J. Personal. 68:1089-108
44. Friedman HS, Booth-Kewley S. 1987. The "disease-prone personality": a meta-analytic view of the construct. Am. Psychol. 42:539-55
45. Friedman HS, Kern ML, Reynolds CA. 2010. Personality and health, subjective well being, and longevity. J. Personal. 78:179-215
46. Friedman HS, Tucker J, Schwartz JE, Martin LR, Tomlinson-Keasey C, et al. 1995. Childhood conscientiousness and longevity: health behaviors and cause of death. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 68:696-703
47. Funder DC. 2001. Personality. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 52:197-221
48. Furr RM. 2009. Personality psychology as a truly behavioral science. Eur. J. Personal. 23:369-401
49. Goldberg LR. 1990. An alternative "description of personality": the Big-Five factor structure. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 59:1216-29
50. Goldberg LR. 1993. The structure of phenotypic personality traits. Am. Psychol. 48:26-34
51. Gray JA. 1987. The Psychology of Fear and Stress. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
52. Gray JA, McNaughton N. 2000. The Neuropsychology of Anxiety: An Enquiry into the Functions of the Septo-Hippocampal System. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. 2nd ed.
53. Gross JJ, Sutton SK, Ketelaar T. 1998. Relations between affect and personality: support for the affect-level and affective-reactivity views. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 24:279-88
54. Hagger MS, Wood C, Stiff C, Chatzisarantis NLD. 2010. Ego-depletion and the strength model of self-control: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 136:495-525
55. Hampson SE. 2008. Mechanisms by which childhood personality traits influence adult well-being. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 17:264-68
56. Hampson SE, Goldberg LR, Vogt TM, Dubanoski JP. 2007. Mechanisms by which childhood personality traits influence adult health status: educational attainment and healthy behaviors. Health Psychol. 26:121-25 (Pubitemid 46072032)
57. Hampson SE, Tildesley E, Andrews JA, Luyckx K, Mroczek DK. 2010. The relation of change in hostility and sociability during childhood to substance use in mid adolescence. J. Res. Personal. 44:103-14
58. Harris LT, McClure SM, Van Den Boss W, Cohen JD, Fiske ST. 2007. Regions of the MPFC differentially tuned to social and nonsocial affective evaluation. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 7:309-16
59. Hellmuth JC, McNulty JK. 2008. Neuroticism, marital violence, and the moderating role of stress and behavioral skills. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 95:166-80
60. Hofer SM, Piccinin AM. 2009. Integrative data analysis through coordination of measurement and analysis protocol across independent longitudinal studies. Psychol. Methods 14:150-64
61. John OP, Naumann LP, Soto CJ. 2008. Paradigm shift to the integrative Big-Five trait taxonomy: history, measurement, and conceptual issues. See John et al. 2008, pp. 114-58
62. John OP, Robins RW, Pervin LA, eds. 2008. Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research. New York: Guilford. 3rd ed.
63. John OP, SrivastavaS. 1999. The Big Five Trait taxonomy: history, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, ed. LA Pervin, OP John, pp. 102-38. New York: Guilford. 2nd ed.
64. Kelly GA. 1955/1991. The Psychology of Personal Constructs. New York: Norton/London: Routledge
65. Kern ML, Friedman HS. 2011. Personality and pathways of influence on physical health. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass. 5:76-87
66. Kern ML, Friedman HS. 2008. Do conscientious individuals live longer? A quantitative review. Health Psychol. 27:505-12
67. Kline RB. 2010. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling. New York: Guilford. 3rd ed.
68. Krueger RF, Johnson W. 2008. Behavioral genetics and personality: a new look at the integration of nature and nurture. See John et al. 2008, pp. 287-310
69. Leary MR, Batts Allen A. 2011. Personality and persona: personality processes in self-presentation. J. Personal. In Press
70. Lee K, Ashton MC. 2008. The HEXACO personality factors in the indigenous personality lexicons of English and 11 other languages. J. Personal. 76:1001-53
71. Longua J, DeHart T, Tennen H, Armeli S. 2009. Personality moderates the interaction between positive and negative daily events predicting negative affect and stress. J. Res. Personal. 43:547-55
72. Lucas RE, Le K, Dyrenforth PE. 2008. Explaining the extraversion/positive affect relation: Sociability cannot account for extraverts' greater happiness. J. Personal. 76:385-414
73. MacKinnon DP, Fairchild AJ, Fritz MS. 2007. Mediation analysis. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 58:593-614
74. Martin LR, Friedman HS, Schwartz JE. 2007. Personality and mortality risk across the lifespan: the importance of conscientiousness as a biopsychosocial attribute. Health Psychol. 26:428-36 (Pubitemid 47445000)
75. McCrae RR, Costa PT Jr. 1991. Adding liebe und arbeit: the full five-factor model and well-being. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 17:227-32
76. McCrae RR, Costa PT Jr. 1996. Toward a new generation of personality theories: theoretical contexts for the five-factor model. In The Five-Factor Model of Personality, ed. JS Wiggins, pp. 51-87. New York: Guilford
77. McCrae RR, Costa PT Jr. 2003. Personality in Adulthood. A Five-Factor Theory. New York: Guilford. 2nd ed.
78. McCrae RR, Costa PT Jr. 2008. The five-factor theory of personality. See John et al. 2008, pp. 159-81
79. Mischel W. 1968. Personality and Assessment. New York: Wiley
80. Mischel W. 2004. Toward an integrative science of the person. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 55:1-22
81. Mischel W, Shoda Y. 1998. Reconciling processing dynamics and personality dispositions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49:229-58 (Pubitemid 128491774)
82. Mischel W, Shoda Y. 2008. Toward a unified theory of personality: integrating dispositions and processing dynamics within the cognitive-affective processing system (CAPS). See John et al. 2008, pp. 208-41
83. Moeller SK, Robinson MD, Bresin K.2010. Integrating trait and social-cognitive views ofpersonality: neuroti-cism, implicit stress priming, and neuroticism-outcome relationships. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 36:677-89
84. Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ, et al. 2011. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:2693-98
85. Monroe SM. 2008. Modern approaches to conceptualizing and measuring human life stress. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 4:33-52 (Pubitemid 351668610)
86. Moskowitz DS. 2010. Quarrelsomeness in daily life. J. Personal. 78:39-66
87. Moskowitz DS, Zuroff DC. 2004. Flux, pulse, and spin: dynamic additions to the personality lexicon. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 86:880-93 (Pubitemid 38707128)
88. Mroczek DK, Spiro A. 2007. Personality change influences mortality in older men. Psychol. Sci. 18:371-76
89. Mroczek DK, Spiro A, Almeida DM. 2003. Between-and within-person variation in affect and personality over days and years: how basic and applied approaches can inform one another. Ageing Int. 28:260-78
90. Mroczek DK, Spiro A, Turiano NA. 2009. Do health behaviors explain the effect of neuroticism on mortality? Longitudinal findings from the VA Normative Aging Study. J. Res. Personal. 43:653-59
91. Muller D, Judd CM, Yzerbyt VY. 2005. When moderation is mediated and mediation is moderated. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 89:852-63 (Pubitemid 43083772)
92. Nabi H, Kivimäki M, Marmot MG, Ferrie J, Zins M, et al. 2008. Does personality explain social inequalities in mortality? The French GAZEL cohort study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 37:591-602 (Pubitemid 351804013)
93. Nigg JT. 2000. On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: views from cognitive and personality psychology as a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychol. Bull. 126:220-46
94. O'Connor DB, Conner MT, Jones FA, McMillan BRW, Ferguson E. 2009. Exploring the benefits of conscientiousness: an investigation of the role of daily stressors and health behaviors. Ann. Behav. Med. 37:184-96
95. Ozer DJ, Benet-Martínez V. 2006. Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 57:401-21 (Pubitemid 43237238)
96. Posner M, Rothbart M. 2007. Educating the Human Brain. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Soc.
97. Prochaska JO, DiClemente CC. 1984. The Transtheoretical Approach: Crossing Traditional Boundaries of Change. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press
98. Revelle W. 1995. Personality processes. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 46:295-328
99. Rhodes RE, Courneya KS, Hayduk LA. 2002. Does personality moderate the theory of planned behavior in the exercise domain? J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 24:120-32 (Pubitemid 37001654)
100. Rhodes RE, Courneya KS, Jones LW. 2005. The theory of planned behavior and lower order personality traits: interaction effects in the exercise domain. Personal. Individ. Differ. 38:251-65 (Pubitemid 39615176)
101. Roberts BW, Jackson JJ. 2008. Sociogenomic personality psychology. J. Personal. 76:1523-44
102. Roberts BW, Kuncel N, Shiner RN, Caspi A, Goldberg LR. 2007. The power of personality: the comparative validity of personality traits, socio-economic status, and cognitive ability for predicting important life outcomes. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 2:313-45
103. Roberts BW, Wood D. 2006. Personality development in the context of the neo-socioanalytic model of personality. In Handbook of Personality Development, ed. D Mroczek, T Little, pp. 11-39. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
104. Roberts BW, Wood D, Caspi A. 2008. The development of personality traits in adulthood. See John et al. 2008, pp. 375-98
105. Robinson MD, Wilkowski BM. 2010. Personality processes in anger and reactive aggression: an introduction. J. Personal. 78:1-8
106. Rothbart MK. 2007. Temperament, development, and personality. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 16:207-12
107. Rothbart MK. 2011. Becoming Who We Are: Temperament and Personality in Development. New York: Guilford
108. Rothbart MK, Ahadi SA. 1994. Temperament and the development of personality. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 103:55-66 (Pubitemid 24066955)
109. Rothbart MK, Bates JE. 2006. Temperament. In Handbook of Child Psychology, Sixth Edition: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development, vol. 3, ed. W Damon, R Lerner, N Eisenberg, pp. 99-106. New York: Wiley
110. Rothbart MK, Derryberry D. 1981. Development of individual differences in temperament. In Advances in Developmental Psychology, vol. 1, ed. ME Lamb, AL Brown, pp. 37-86. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
111. Rothbart MK, Rueda MR. 2005. The development of effortful control. In Developing Individuality in the Human Brain: A Tribute to Michael I. Posner, ed. U Mayr, E Awh, SW Keele, pp. 167-88. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
112. Rusting CL. 1998. Personality, mood, and cognitive processing of emotional information: three conceptual frameworks. Psychol. Bull. 124:165-96 (Pubitemid 128459543)
113. Saucier G. 2009. Recurrent personality dimensionsininclusive lexical studies: indications forabigsix structure. J. Personal. 77:1577-614
114. Saucier G, Bel-Bahar T, Fernandez C. 2007. What modifies the expression of personality tendencies? Defining basic domains of situation variables. J. Personal. 75:479-504
115. Saucier G, Goldberg LR. 2001. Lexical studies of indigenous personality factors: premises, products, and prospects. J. Personal. 69:847-79 (Pubitemid 33597793)
116. Shipley BA, Weiss A, Der G, Taylor MD, Deary IJ. 2007. Neuroticism, extraversion, and mortality in the UK Health and Lifestyle Survey: a 21-year prospective cohort study. Psychosom. Med. 69:923-31 (Pubitemid 350158835)
117. ShodaY, MischelW,Wright JC. 1994. Intra-individual stability in the organization and patterningofbehavior: incorporating psychological situations into the idiographic analysis of personality. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 67:674-87
118. Smillie LD. 2008. What is reinforcement sensitivity? Neuroscience paradigms for approach-avoidance process theories of personality. Eur. J. Personal. 22:359-84
119. Smillie LD, Pickering AD, Jackson CJ. 2006. The new Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory: implications for psychometric measurement. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 10:320-35
120. Srivastava S, Angelo KM, Vallereux SR. 2008. Extraversion and positive affect: a day reconstruction study of person-environment transactions. J. Res. Personal. 42:1613-18
121. Strack F, Deutsch R. 2004. Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 8:220-47 (Pubitemid 39288823)
122. Suchy Y. 2009. Executive functioning: overview, assessment, and research issues for non-neuropsychologists. Ann. Behav. Med. 37:106-16
123. Suls J, Bunde J. 2005. Anger, anxiety, and depression as risk factors for cardiovascular disease: the problems and implications of overlapping affective dispositions. Psychol. Bull. 131:260-300 (Pubitemid 40344547)
124. Suls J, Martin R. 2005. The daily life of the garden-variety neurotic: reactivity, stress exposure, mood spillover, and maladaptive coping. J. Personal. 73:1-25
125. Taga KA, Friedman HS, Martin LR. 2009. Early personality traits as predictors of mortality risk following conjugal bereavement. J. Personal. 77:669-90
126. Tamir M, Robinson MD. 2004. Knowing good from bad: the paradox of neuroticism, negative affect, and evaluative processing. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 87:913-25 (Pubitemid 39621138)
127. Terracciano A, Lockenhoff CE, Zonderman AB, Ferrucci L, Costa PT Jr. 2008. Personality predictors of longevity: activity, emotional stability, and conscientiousness. Psychosom. Med. 70:621-27
128. Tong EMW. 2010. Personality influences in appraisal-emotion relationships: the role of neuroticism. J. Personal. 78:393-417
129. Walker BM, Winter DA. 2007. The elaboration of personal construct psychology. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 58:453-77
130. Wasylkiw L, Fabrigar LR, Rainboth S, Reid A, Steen C. 2010. Neuroticism and the architecture of the self: exploring neuroticism as a moderator of the impact of ideal self-discrepancies on emotion. J. Personal. 78:471-92
131. Watson D, Pennebaker JW. 1989. Health complaints, stress, and distress: exploring the central role of negative affectivity. Psychol. Rev. 96:234-54
132. Wiggins JS. 1991. Agency and communion as conceptual coordinates for the understanding and measurement of interpersonal behavior. In Thinking Clearly About Psychology, Vol. 2: Personality and Psychopathology, ed. WM Grove, D Cicchetti, pp. 89-113. Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press
133. Wilkowski BM, Robinson MD. 2007. Keeping one's cool: trait anger, hostile thoughts, and the recruitment of limited capacity control. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 33:1201-13
134. Wilkowski BM, Robinson MD. 2008. The cognitive basis of trait anger and reactive aggression: an integrative analysis. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 12:3-28
135. Wilkowski BM, Robinson MD. 2010. The anatomy of anger: an integrative cognitive model of trait anger and reactive aggression. J. Personal. 78:9-38
136. Williams PG, Thayer JF. 2009. Executive functioning and health: introduction to the special series. Ann. Behav. Med. 37:101-5
137. Wills TA, Dishion TJ. 2004. Temperament and adolescent substance use: a transactional analysis of emerging self-control. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. 33:69-81 (Pubitemid 38341549)
138. Wills TA, Gibbons FX, Sargent JD, Gerrard M, Lee HR, Dal Cin S. 2010. Good self-control moderates the effect of mass media on adolescent tobacco and alcohol use: tests with studies of children and adolescents. Health Psychol. 29:539-49
139. Wilson RS, Bienias JL, Mendes de Leon CF, Evans DA, Bennett DA. 2003. Negative affect and mortality in older persons. Am. J. Epidemiol. 158:827-35 (Pubitemid 37323244)
140. Wright JC, Mischel W. 1987. A conditional approach to dispositional constructs: the local predictability of social behavior. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 55:454-69
141. Zentner M, Shiner R, eds. 2011. Handbook of Temperament. New York: Guilford. 2nd ed. In Press
142. Zuckerman M. 1994. Behavioural Expressions and Biosocial Bases of Sensation Seeking. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press