A review on therapeutic drug monitoring of immunosuppressant drugs

Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences

Volumn 14, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 485-498

  Mohammadpour, Niloufar ^a   Elyasi, Sepideh ^b   Vahdati, Naser ^b   Mohammadpour, Amir Hooshang ^b,c   Shamsara, Jamal ^b  

^a ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY   (Iran)

^b MASHHAD UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

^c MASHHAD UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

Author keywords

Cyclosporine; Mycophenolic acid; Sirolimus; Tacrolimus; Therapeutic drug monitoring

Indexed keywords

AZATHIOPRINE; CYCLOSPORIN; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID; PREDNISOLONE; RAPAMYCIN; TACROLIMUS;

DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG MONITORING; HUMAN; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY GRAFT REJECTION; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; LIVER GRAFT REJECTION; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; NEPHROTOXICITY; REVIEW;

EID: 80055098712     PISSN: 20083866     EISSN: 20083874     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Spector R, Park GD, Johnson GF, Vesell ES. Therapeutic drug monitoring. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988; 43:345-353.
2. Matzke GR, Lucarotti RL, Shapiro HS. Controlled comparison of gentamicin and tobramycin nephrotoxicity. Am J Nephrol 1983; 3:11-8.
3. Sanathanan LP, Peck CC, Temple R, Lieberman R, Pledger G. Randomization, PK-controlled dosing and titration: an integrated approach for designing clinical trials. Drug Inf J 1991; 25:425-431.
4. Peck CC, Barr WH, Benet LZ, Collins J, Desjardins RE, Furst DE, et al. Opportunities for integration of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicokinetics in rational drug development. Clin Pharm Ther 1992; 51:465-473.
5. Peck CC. Rationale for the effective use of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in early drug development. In: Yacobi A, Skelly JP, Shah VP, Benet LZ, editors. Integration of pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicokinetics in rational drug development. New York: Plenum Press;1993.p.1-5.
6. Budde K, Glander P. Pharmacokinetic principles of immunosuppressive drugs. Ann Transplant 2008; 13:5-10.
7. Belitsky P, Levy GA, Johnston A. Neoral absorption profiling: an evolution in effectiveness. Transplant Proc 2000; 32:45S-52S.
8. Holt DW, Johnston A. Cyclosporin monitoring: its role in autoimmune indications. J Autoimmun 1992; 5:82.
9. Nankivell BJ, Borrows RJ. Fung CL The natural history of chronic allograft nephropathy. N Engl J Med 2003; 349:2326-2333.
10. Kahan B. Sirolimus: a comprehensive review. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2001; 2:1903-1917.
11. Nashan B, Bock A, Bosmans JL. Use of Neoral C monitoring: a European consensus. Transpl Int 2005; 18:768-778.
12. Van Hest RM, van Gelder T, Bouw R. Time-dependent clearance of mycophenolic acid in renal transplant recipients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2007; 63:741-752.
13. Hale MD, Nicholls AJ, Bullingham RE. The pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic relationship for mycophenolate mofetil in renal transplantation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1998; 64:672-683.
14. van Hest R, Mathot R, ulto A. Predicting the usefulness of therapeutic drug monitoring of mycophenolic acid: a computer simulation.Ther Drug Monit 2005; 27:163-167.
15. Fukudo M. Individualized dosage regimen of immunosuppressive drugs based on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis. Yakugaku Zasshi 2007; 127:1081-1089.
16. Oellerich M, Barten MJ, Armstrong VW. Biomarkers: the link between therapeutic drug monitoring and pharmacodynamics. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28:35-38.
17. Dambrin C, Klupp J, Morris RE. Pharmacodynamics of immunosuppressive drugs. Curr Opin Immunol 2000; 12:557-562.
18. Yatscoff R, Aspeslet WLJ, Gallant HL. Pharmacodynamic monitoring of immunosuppressive drugs. Clin Chem 1998; 44:428-32.
19. Ransom JT. Mechanism of action of mycophenolate mofetil. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 681-684.
20. Halloran PF, Helms LM, Kung L, Noujaim J. The temporal profi le of calcineurin inhibition by cyclosporine in vivo. Transplantation 1999; 68:1356-13561.
21. Batiuk TD, Pazderka F, Enns J. Cyclosporine inhibition of calcineurin activity in human leukocytes in vivo is rapidly reversible. J Clin Invest 1995; 96:1254-1260.
22. Rostaing L, Puyoo O, Tkaczuk J. Differences in Type 1 and Type 2 intracytoplasmic cytokines, detected by fl ow cytometry, according to immunosuppression (cyclosporine A vs. tacrolimus) in stable renal allograft recipients. Clin Transplant 1999; 13:400-409.
23. Rostaing L, Tkaczuk J, Durand M. Kinetics of intracytoplasmic Th1 and Th2 cytokine production assessed by fl ow cytometry following in vitro activation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cytometry 1999; 35:318-328.
24. Giese T, Zeier M, Meuer S. Analysis of NFAT-regulated gene expression in vivo: a novel perspective for optimal individualized doses of calcineurin inhibitors. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2004; 19:55-60.
25. Gummert JF, Barten MJ, Sherwood SW. Pharmacodynamics of immunosuppression by mycophenolic acid: inhibition of both lymphocyte proliferation and activation correlates with pharmacokinetics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 291:1100-1112.
26. Barten MJ, Gummert JF, van Gelder T. Flow cytometric quantitation of calcium- dependent and -independent mitogen-stimulation of T cell functions in whole blood: inhibition by immunosuppressive drugs in vitro. J Immunol Methods 2001; 253:95-112.
27. Stalder M, Bîrsan T, Holm B. Quantifi cation of immunosuppression by fl ow cytometry in stable renal transplant recipients. Ther Drug Monit 2003; 25:22-27.
28. Israeli M, Yussim A, Mor E. Preceeding the rejection: in search for a comprehensive posttransplant immune monitoring platform. Transplant Immunol 2007; 18:7-12.
29. Calne RY. Organ transplantation. The present position and future prospects of organ transplantation. Trans Med Soc Lond 1969; 85:56-67.
30. Calne RY. Immunosuppression and clinical organ transplantation. Transplant Proc 1974; 6: 51.
31. Terasaki PI, McClelland JD, Yuge J, Cecka JM, Gjertson DW, Takemoto S, et al. Advances in kidney transplantation: 1985- 1995. In: Cecka JM, Terasaki PI, eitortrs. Clinical transplants 1995. Los Angeles: UCLA Tissue Typing;1996.p.487-501.
32. Shaw LM, Bowers L, Demers L, Freeman D, Moyer T, Sanghvi A. Critical issues in cyclosporine monitoring: report of the task force on cyclosporine monitoring. Clin Chem 1987; 33:1269-1288.
33. Kahan BD, Shaw LM, Holt D, Grevel J, Johnston A. Consensus document: Hawk's Cay meeting on therapeutic drug monitoring of cyclosporine monitoring. Clin Chem 1990; 36:1510-1516.
34. Shaw LM, Yatscoff RW, Bowers LD, Freeman DJ, Jeffery JR, Keown PA. Canadian consensus meeting on cyclosporine monitoring: report of the consensus panel. Clin Chem 1990; 36:1841-1846.
35. Morris RG, Tett SE, Ray JE. Cyclosporine monitoring in Australia:consensus recommendations. Ther Drug Monit 1994; 16:570-576.
36. Holt DW, Johnston A, Roberts NB, Tredger JM, Trull AK. Methodological and clinical aspects of cyclosporine monitoring: report of the Association of Clinical Biochemists task force. Ann Clin Biochem 1994;31:420-446.
37. Oellerich M, Armstrong VW, Kahan B, Shaw L, Holt DW, Yatscoff R. Lake Louise consensus conference on cyclosporin monitoring in organ transplantation: report of the consensus panel. Ther Drug Monit 1995;17:642-654.
38. Holt DW, Johnston A, Thomson A, Starzl T. Immunosuppressive Drugs: Developements in Anti-Rejection Therapy, Pharmacokinetics and monitoring of cyclosporin A. London: Edward Arnold; 1994.p.3,37-45.
39. Johnston A, Holt DW. Therapeutic drug monitoring of immunosuppressant drugs. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 47:339-350.
40. Johnston A, Marsden JT, Holt DW. The influence of haematocrit on blood cyclosporin measurements in vivo. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1988; 25:509-513.
41. Johnston A, Marsden JT, Holt DW. Sample pretreatment to minimize interference from whole blood in the radioimmunoassay for cyclosporine. Transplantation 1987; 44:332.
42. Holt DW, Marsden JT, Johnston A. Measurement of cyclosporine: methodological problems. Transplant Proc 1986; 18:101-110.
43. Johnston A, Marsden JT, Holt DW. The United Kingdom Cyclosporin Quality Assessment Scheme. Ther Drug Monit 1986; 8:200-204.
44. Tsang VT, Johnston A, Heritier F, Leaver N, Hodson ME, Yacoub M. Cyclosporin pharmacokinetics in heart-lung transplant recipients with cystic ®brosis. Effects of pancreatic enzymes and ranitidine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 46:261-265.
45. Holt DW, Marsden JT, Johnston A, Bewick M, Taube DH.Blood cyclosporin concentrations and renal allograft dysfunction. Br Med J 1986; 293:1057-1059.
46. Sketris I, Yatscoff R, Keown P. Optimizing the use of cyclosporine in renal transplantation. Clin Biochem 1995; 28:195-211.
47. Holt DW, Johnston A. Cyclosporin assay techniques. Accuracy and reproducibility variables impacting on measurements. Int J Rad Appl Instrum B 1990; 17: 733-736.
48. Holt DW, Johnston A, den Boer NC, van der Heiden C, Leijnse B, Souverijn JHM. Clinical chemistry plenum publishing corporation; practical applications of therapeutic drug monitoring: The impact of technological developments. Int J Rad Appl Instrum 1989; 93-102.
49. Holt DW, Johnston A, Roberts NB, Tredger JM, Trull AK. Methodological and clinical aspects of cyclosporine monitoring: report of the Association of Clinical Biochemists task force. Ann Clin Biochem 1994; 31:420-446.
50. Dalrymple-Hay M, Meara M, Reynolds L. Changing stable heart transplant recipients from Sandimmune to Neoral. Transplant Proc 1996; 28:2285-2286.
51. Holt DW, Mueller EA, Kovarik JM, van Bree JB, Richard F, Kutz K. Sandimmun neoral pharmacokinetics: impact of the new oral formulation. Transplant Proc 1995; 27:1434-1437.
52. Holt DW, Mueller EA, Kovarik JM, van Bree JB, Kutz K. The pharmacokinetics of Sandimmun Neoral: a new oral formulation of cyclosporine. Transplant Proc 1994; 26:2935-2939.
53. Holt DW, Johnston A. Monitoring new immunosuppressive agents. Are the methods adequate? Drug Metabol Drug Interacts 1997; 14:5-15.
54. Merton G, Jones K, Lee M, Johnston A, Holt DW. Accuracy of cyclosporin measurements made in capillary blood samples obtained by skin puncture. Ther Drug Monit 2000; 22:594-598.
55. Lindholm A, Kahan BD. In-uence of cyclosporine pharmacokinetics, trough concentrations, and AUC monitoring on outcome after kidney transplantation. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1993; 54:205-218.
56. Amante AJ, Kahan BD. Abbreviated area-under-the-curve strategy for monitoring cyclosporine microemulsion therapy in immediate posttransplant period. Clin Chem 1996; 42: 1294-1296.
57. El-Agroudy AE. Cyclosporine therapeutic monitoring with Cmax in kidney transplant recipients: does it fit for all populations? Exp Clin Transplant 2008; 6:282-286.
58. Kahan BD, Welsh M, Rutzky LP. Challenges in cyclosporine therapy: the role of therapeutic monitoring by area under the curve monitoring. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17:621-624.
59. Holt DW, Johnston A. Cyclosporin monitoring: trough or AUC? Perspectives 1996; 2:49-52.
60. Holt DW, Johnston A. Cyclosporin Microemulsion. A guide to usage and monitoring. Biodrugs 1997; 7:175-197.
61. Johnston A, Sketris I, Marsden JT. A limited sampling strategy for the measurement of cyclosporine AUC. Transplant Proc 1990; 22:1345-1346.
62. Johnston A, Kovarik JM, Mueller EA, Holt DW. Predicting patients' exposure to cyclosporin. Transplant Int 1996; 9:110-113.
63. Gaspari F. Abbreviated kinetic profiles in area-under-the-curve monitoring of cyclosporine therapy. Technical note. Kidney Int 1998; 54:2146-2150.
64. Fu LW. Cyclosporin pharmacokinetics following administration of capsules and Neoral in paediatric patients with lupus nephritis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 44:125-127.
65. Cantarovich F, Bizollon C, Cantarovich D, Lefrancois N, Dubernard JM, Traeger J. Cyclosporine plasma levels six hours after oral administration. A useful tool for monitoring therapy. Transplantation 1988; 45:389-394.
66. Cantarovich M, Besner JG, Fitchett DH, Latter DA. Efficacy and side-effects of cyclosporine dose monitoring with levels 6 h after the morning dose in heart transplant patients. Clin Transplant 1997; 11:400-405.
67. Rocha G, Deschenes J, Cantarovich M. Cyclosporine monitoring with levels 6 hours after the morning dose in patients with noninfectious uveitis. Ophthalmology 1997; 104:245-251.
68. Grant D, Rochon J, Levy G. Comparison of the long-term tolerability, pharmacodynamics, and safety of Sandimmune and Neoral in liver transplant recipients. Ontario Liver Transplant Study Group. Transplant Proc 1996; 28:2232-2233.
69. Grant D, Kneteman N, Tchervenkov J, Roy A, Murphy G, Tan A, et al. Peak cyclosporine levels (Cmax) correlate with freedom from liver graft rejection: results of a prospective, randomized comparison of neoral and sandimmune for liver transplantation. Transplantation 1999; 67:1133-1137.
70. Levy GA, Grant D. Neoral in liver transplantation. Transplant Proc 1996; 28:1019-1021.
71. Levy G. New strategies for therapeutic drug monitoring of Neoral. Two-hour cyclosporine concentration (C2) as a monitoring tool for Neoral, Oxford: Blackwell Science;1998.p.19-22.
72. Langers P. Switching monitoring of emulsified cyclosporine from trough level to 2-hour level in stable liver transplant patients. Liver Transpl 2004; 10:183-189.
73. Naito M. Monitoring of blood cyclosporine concentration in steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. Int Med 2008; 47:1567-1572.
74. Takeuchi H. Evidence of different pharmacokinetics between cyclosporine and tacrolimus in renal transplant recipients: why cyclosporine is monitored by C2 level and tacrolimus by trough level. Transplant Proc 2008; 40:2240-2242.
75. Halloran PF, Helms LM, Kung L, Noujaim J. The temporal profile of calcineurin inhibition by cyclosporine in vivo. Transplantation 1999; 68:1356-1361.
76. Sindhi R, LaVia MF, Paulling E. Stimulated response of peripheral lymphocytes may distinguish cyclosporine effect in renal transplant recipients receiving a cyclosporine+rapamycin regimen. Transplantation 2000; 69:432-436.
77. Belitsky P, Dunn S, Johnston A, Levy G. Impact of absorption profiling on efficacy and safety of cyclosporin therapy in transplant recipients. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000; 39:117-125.
78. Cantarovich M, Elstein E, de Varennes B, Barkun JS. Clinical benefit of neoral dose monitoring with cyclosporine 2-hr post- dose levels compared with trough levels in stable heart transplant patients. Transplantation 1999; 68:1839-1842.
79. Cantarovich M, Quantz M, Elstein E, Ergina P, Magnan C, de Varennes B. Neoral dose monitoring with cyclosporine 2-hour postdose levels in heart transplant patients receiving anti-thymocyte globulin induction. Transplant Proc 2000; 32:446-448.
80. Marquet, P. Performance of the new mycophenolate assay based on IMPDH enzymatic activity for pharmacokinetic investigations and setup of Bayesian estimators in different populations of allograft recipients. The Drug Monit 2009; 31:443-450.
81. Johnston A, David OJ, Cooney GF. Pharmacokinetic validation of neoral absorption profiling. Transplant Proc 2000; 32:53S-6S.
82. Pourfarziani V, Taher S. Mycophenolate sodium increases cyclosporine blood levels in renal transplant recipients. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 2009; 20:991-4.
83. Holt DW, White DJ. How to measure cyclosporin. Lancet 1984; 2:228.
84. Holt DW, Johnston A. Cyclosporin A: analytical methodology and factors affecting therapeutic drug monitoring. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17:625-630.
85. Johnston A, Cullen G, Holt DW. Quality assurance for cyclosporin assays in body uids. Ann Acad Med Singapore 1991; 20:3-8.
86. Lindholm A, Dahlqvist R, Groth GG, Sjoqvist F. A prospective study of cyclosporine concentration in relation to its therapeutic effect and toxicity after renal transplantation. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1990; 30:443-452.
87. Johnston A, Holt DW. Calibration of the CYCLO-Trac SP cyclosporine radioimmunoassay. Clin Chem 1993; 39:2532-2533.
88. McLachlan AJ, Tett SE. Effect of metabolic inhibitors on cyclosporine pharmacokinetics using a population approach. Ther Drug Monit 1998; 20:390-395.
89. SchuÈ tz E, Svinarov D, Shipkova M. Cyclosporin whole blood immunoassays (AxSYM, CEDIA, and Emit): a critical overview of performance characteristics and comparison with HPLC. Clin Chem 1998; 44:2158-2164.
90. Jusko WJ, Thomson AW, Fung J. Consensus document: therapeutic monitoring of tacrolimus (FK-506). Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17:606-614.
91. McMaster P, Mirza DF, Ismail T, Vennarecci G, Patapis P, Mayer AD. Therapeutic drug monitoring of tacrolimus in clinical transplantation. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17:602-605.
92. Venkataramanan R, Swaminathan A, Prasad T. Clinical pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus. Clin Pharmacokinet 1995; 29:404-430.
93. Anonymous. Japanese study of FK 506 on kidney transplantation: the benefit of monitoring the whole blood FK 506 concentration. Jap FK 506 Study Group. Transplant Proc 1991; 23: 3085-3088.
94. Hedayat S, Kershner RP, Su G. Relationship of whole-blood FK506 concentrations to rejection and toxicity in liver and kidney transplants. J Biopharm Stat 1996; 6:411-424.
95. Ku Y-M, Min DI. An abbreviated area-under-the-curve monitoring for tacrolimus patients with liver transplants. Ther Drug Monit 1998; 20:219-223.
96. Cantarovich M, Fridell J, Barkun J. Optimal time points for the prediction of the area-under-the-curve in liver transplant patients receiving tacrolimus. Transplant Proc 1998; 30:1460-1461.
97. Wong KM, Shek CC, Chau KF, Li CS. Abbreviated tacrolimus area-under-the-curve monitoring for renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 2000; 35:660-666.
98. Ihara H, Shinkuma D, Ichikawa Y, Nojima M, Nagano S, Ikoma F. Intra- and interindividual variation in the pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus (FK506) in kidney transplant recipients importance of trough level as a practical indicator. Int J Urol 1995; 2:151-155.
99. Laskow DA, Vincenti F, Neylan JF, Mendez R, Matas AJ. An open-label, concentration-ranging trial of FK-506 in primary kidney transplantation. Transplantation 1996; 62:900-905.
100. Kershner RP, Fitzsimmons WE. Relationship of FK-506 whole blood concentrations and efficacy and toxicity after liver and kidney transplantation. Transplantation 1996; 62:920-926.
101. Taylor PJ, Hogan NS, Lynch SV, Johnson AG, Pond SM. Improved therapeutic drug monitoring of tacrolimus (FK506) by tandem mass spectrometry. Clin Chem 1997; 43:2189-2190.
102. Schambeck CM, Bedel A, Keller F. Limit of quantitation (Functional Sensitivity) of the new IMx Tacrolimus II microparticulate immunoassay. Clin Chem 1998; 44:2217.
103. Iwasaki K. Metabolism of tacrolimus (FK506) and recent topics in clinical pharmacokinetics. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2007; 22:328-335.
104. Weisel M, Carl S. Placebo-controlled study of mycophenolate mofetil combined with cyclosporin, corticosteroids for prevention of acute rejection. European Mycophenolate Mofetil Cooperative Study Group. Lancet 1995; 345:1321-1325.
105. Sollinger HW. Mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in primary cadaveric renal allograft recipients. U. S. Renal Transplant Mycophenolate Mofetil Study Group. Transplantation 1995; 60:225-232.
106. Sollinger HW. A blinded randomized clinical trial of mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection in cadaveric renal transplantation. The Tricontinental Mycophenolate Mofetil Renal Transplantation Study Group. Transplantation 1996; 61:1029-1037.
107. Bullingham RE, Nicholls A, Hale M. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil (RS61443): a short review. Transplant Proc 1996; 28:925-929.
108. Schutz E, Shipkova M, Armstrong VW. Therapeutic drug monitoring of mycophenolic acid: comparison of HPLC and immunoassay reveals new MPA metabolites. Transplant Proc 1998; 30:1185-1187.
109. Mohammadpour AH. Estimation of abbreviated mycophenolic acid area under the concentration-time curve during early posttransplant period by limited sampling strategy. Transplant Proc 2008; 40:3668-3672.
110. Bullingham RES, Nicholls AJ, Kamm BR. Clinical pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 34:429-455.
111. Hao C. Monitoring mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetic parameters in liver transplant recipients: prediction of occurrence of leukopenia. Liver Transpl 2008; 14:1165-1173.
112. Shaw LM, Korecka M, van Breeman R, Nowak I, Brayman KL. Analysis, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic drug monitoring of mycophenolic acid. Clin Biochem 1998; 31:323-328.
113. Meiser BM, Pfeiffer M, Jagiello-Kraatz M. Mycophenolate mofetil dose adjustment based on trough levels improves outcome after heart transplantion. J Heart Lung Transplant 1998; 17: 85-86.
114. Bullingham RE, Nicholls A, Hale M. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil (RS61443): a short review. Transplant Proc 1996; 28:925-929.
115. Nazemian F, Mohammadpour AH, Abtahi B, Naghibi M. influence of renal graft function on mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetic during the period after kidney transplant. Exp Clin Transplant 2008; 4:276-281.
116. Mohammadpour AH, Nazemian F, Abtahi B, Naghibi M. Estimation of abbreviated Mycophenolic acid area under the concentration time curve during post transplant period by limited sampling strategy. Transplant Proc 2008; 40:3668-3672.
117. van Gelder T, Hilbrands LB, Vanrenterghem Y. A randomized double-blind, multicenter plasma concentration controlled study of the safety and efficacy of oral mycophenolate mofetil for the prevention of acute rejection after kidney transplantation. Transplantation 1999; 68:261-266.
118. Takahashi K, Ochiai T, Uchida K, Yasamura T, Ishibashi M, Suzuki S. Pilot study of mycophenolate mofetil (RS- 61443) in the prevention of acute rejection following renal transplantation in Japanese patients. Transplant Proc 1995; 27:1421-142.
119. Aw MM. Mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetics in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2003; 9:383-388.
120. Mourad M. Correlation of mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetic parameters with side effects in kidney transplant patients treated with mycophenolate mofetil. Clin Chem 2001; 47:88-94.
121. Cattaneo D. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate sodium and comparison with the mofetil formulation in stable kidney transplant recipients. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2007; 2:1147-1155.
122. Nazemian F. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid during the early period after renal transplant. Exp Clin Transplant 2007; 5:658-663.
123. Park JM, Lake KD, Cibrik DM. Impact of changing from cyclosporine to tacrolimus on pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic acid in renal transplant recipients with diabetes. Ther Drug Monit 2008; 30:591-596.
124. Nashan B. Pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of mycophenolate mofetil in combination with standard-dose or reduced-dose tacrolimus in liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2009; 15:136-147.
125. Mohammadpour AH, Nazemian F, Hassanzadeh khayat M, Bahrami AA, Kazemi M. Effect of ganciclovir on pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic mofetil, in kidney trnsplant patients. Iran J Basic Med Sci 2008; 10:233-238.
126. Shipkova M, Niedmann PD, Armstrong VW. Simultaneous determination of mycophenolic acid and its glucuronide in human plasma using a simple high-performance liquid chromatography procedure. Clin Chem 1998; 44:1481-1488.
127. Beal JL, Jones CE, Taylor PJ, Tett SE. Evaluation of an immunoassay (EMIT) for mycophenolic acid in plasma from renal transplant recipients compared with a high-performance liquid chromatography assay. Ther Drug Monit 1998; 20:685-690.
128. Blanchet B. Comparison of a new enzymatic assay with a high-performance liquid chromatography/ ultraviolet detection method for therapeutic drug monitoring of mycophenolic acid in adult liver transplant recipients. Liver Transpl 2008; 14:1745-1751.
129. Saadat-Lajevardi S, Jones K, Lee T. The International Mycophenolic Acid Proficiency Testing Scheme [Abstract]. Ther Drug Monit 1999; 21:440-441.
130. Mathew BS. A limited sampling strategy for tacrolimus in renal transplant patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2008; 66:467-472.
131. McAlister VC, Gao Z, Peltekian K, Domingues J, Mahalati K, MacDonald AS. Sirolimus-tacrolimus combination immunosuppression [letter]. Lancet 2000; 355:376-377.
132. Groth CG, Backman L, Morales JM. Sirolimus (rapamycin) -based therapy in human renal transplantation: similar efficacy and different toxicity compared with cyclosporine. Sirolimus European Renal Transplant Study Group [see comments]. Transplantation 1999; 67:1036-1042.
133. Kreis H, Cisterne JM, Land W. Sirolimus in association with mycophenolate mofetil induction for the prevention of acute graft rejection in renal allograft recipients. Transplantation 2000; 69:1252-1260.
134. Kahan BD, Julian BA, Pescovitz MD, Vanrenterghem Y, Neylan J. Sirolimus reduces the incidence of acute rejection episodes despite lower cyclosporine doses in Caucasian recipients of mismatched primary renal allografts: a phase II trial. Rapamune Study Group. Transplantation 1999; 68:1526-1532.
135. Jones K, Saadat-Lajevardi S, Lee TD. An immunoassay for the measurement of sirolimus. Clin Ther 2000; 22:49-61.
136. Holt DW, Lee TD, Jones K, Johnston A. Validation of an assay for routine monitoring of sirolimus using HPLC with mass spectrometric detection. Clin Chem 2000; 46:1179-1183.
137. Napoli KL. A practical guide to the analysis of sirolimus using high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. Clin Ther 2000; 22:B14-B24.