Effects of thyroid dysfunction on lipid profile

Open Cardiovascular Medicine Journal

Volumn 5, Issue SPEC. ISSUE, 2011, Pages 76-84

  Rizos, C V ^a   Elisaf, M S ^a   Liberopoulos, E N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOANNINA   (Greece)

Author keywords

Cardiovascular disease; Dyslipidemia; Hyperthyroidism; Hypothyroidism; Lipoprotein (a); Thyroid autoimmunity; Thyroid dysfunction; Thyroxine treatment

Indexed keywords

HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE; LEVOTHYROXINE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; PLACEBO; THYROXINE;

ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG EFFICACY; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; HYPERTHYROIDISM; HYPOCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPOTHYROIDISM; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; SUBCLINICAL HYPOTHYROIDISM; THYROID DISEASE; THYROID FUNCTION;

EID: 80054770738     PISSN: None     EISSN: 18741924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1874192401105010076     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Duntas LH. Thyroid disease and lipids. Thyroid 2002; 12: 287-93.
2. Friis T, Pedersen LR. Serum lipids in hyper and hypothyroidism before and after treatment. Clin Chim Acta 1987; 162: 155-63.
3. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 526-34.
4. Asvold BO, Vatten LJ, Nilsen TI, Bjoro T. The association between TSH within the reference range and serum lipid concentrations in a population-based study. The HUNT Study. Eur J Endocrinol 2007; 156: 181-6.
5. Bakker O, Hudig F, Meijssen S, Wiersinga WM. Effects of triiodothyronine and amiodarone on the promoter of the human LDL receptor gene. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 1998; 249: 517-21.
6. Shin DJ, Osborne TF. Thyroid hormone regulation and cholesterol metabolism are connected through Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein-2 (SREBP-2). J Biol Chem 2003; 278: 34114-8.
7. Faure P, Oziol L, Artur Y, Chomard P. Thyroid hormone (T3) and its acetic derivative (TA3) protect low-density lipoproteins from oxidation by different mechanisms. Biochimie 2004; 86: 411-8.
8. Lagrost L. Regulation of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity: review of in vitro and in vivo studies. Biochim Biophys Acta 1994; 1215: 209-36.
9. Kuusi T, Saarinen P, Nikkila EA. Evidence for the role of hepatic endothelial lipase in the metabolism of plasma high density lipoprotein2 in man. Atherosclerosis 1980; 36: 589-93.
10. Santamarina-Fojo S, Gonzalez-Navarro H, Freeman L, Wagner E, Nong Z. Hepatic lipase, lipoprotein metabolism, and atherogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 1750-4.
11. Prieur X, Huby T, Coste H, Schaap FG, Chapman MJ, Rodriguez JC. Thyroid hormone regulates the hypotriglyceridemic gene APOA5. J Biol Chem 2005; 280: 27533-43.
12. Rensen PC, van Dijk KW, Havekes LM. Apolipoprotein AV: low concentration, high impact. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2005; 25: 2445-7.
13. Iglesias P, Diez JJ. Influence of thyroid dysfunction on serum concentrations of adipocytokines. Cytokine 2007; 40: 61-70.
14. Viguerie N, Millet L, Avizou S, Vidal H, Larrouy D, Langin D. Regulation of human adipocyte gene expression by thyroid hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 630-4.
15. Hsieh CJ, Wang PW. Serum concentrations of adiponectin in patients with hyperthyroidism before and after control of thyroid function. Endocr J 2008; 55: 489-94.
16. Crunkhorn S, Patti ME. Links between thyroid hormone action, oxidative metabolism, and diabetes risk? Thyroid 2008; 18: 227-37.
17. Fernandez-Real JM, Lopez-Bermejo A, Castro A, Casamitjana R, Ricart W. Thyroid function is intrinsically linked to insulin sensitivity and endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy euthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006; 91: 3337-43.
18. Chubb SA, Davis WA, Davis TM. Interactions among thyroid function, insulin sensitivity, and serum lipid concentrations: the Fremantle diabetes study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 5317-20.
19. Roos A, Bakker SJ, Links TP, Gans RO, Wolffenbuttel BH. Thyroid function is associated with components of the metabolic syndrome in euthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 491-6.
20. Venditti P, Di Meo S. Thyroid hormone-induced oxidative stress. Cell Mol Life Sci 2006; 63: 414-34.
21. Auer J, Berent R, Weber T, Lassnig E, Eber B. Thyroid function is associated with presence and severity of coronary atherosclerosis. Clin Cardiol 2003; 26: 569-73.
22. De Pergola G, Ciampolillo A, Paolotti S, Trerotoli P, Giorgino R. Free triiodothyronine and thyroid stimulating hormone are directly associated with waist circumference, independently of insulin resistance, metabolic parameters and blood pressure in overweight and obese women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2007; 67: 265-9.
23. Knudsen N, Laurberg P, Rasmussen LB, et al. Small differences in thyroid function may be important for body mass index and the occurrence of obesity in the population. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005; 90: 4019-24.
24. Nyrnes A, Jorde R, Sundsfjord J. Serum TSH is positively associated with BMI. Int J Obes (Lond) 2006; 30: 100-5.
25. Tsimihodimos V, Bairaktari E, Tzallas C, Miltiadus G, Liberopoulos E, Elisaf M. The incidence of thyroid function abnormalities in patients attending an outpatient lipid clinic. Thyroid 1999; 9: 365-8.
26. Stone NJ. Secondary causes of hyperlipidemia. Med Clin North Am 1994; 78: 117-41.
27. Pearce EN, Wilson PW, Yang Q, Vasan RS, Braverman LE. Thyroid function and lipid subparticle sizes in patients with short-term hypothyroidism and a population-based cohort. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 888-94.
28. Abbas JM, Chakraborty J, Akanji AO, Doi SA. Hypothyroidism results in small dense LDL independent of IRS traits and hypertriglyceridemia. Endocr J 2008; 55: 381-9.
29. Al-Tonsi AA, Abdel-Gayoum AA, Saad M. The secondary dyslipidemia and deranged serum phosphate concentration in thyroid disorders. Exp Mol Pathol 2004; 76: 182-7.
30. Teixeira Pde F, Reuters VS, Ferreira MM, et al. Lipid profile in different degrees of hypothyroidism and effects of levothyroxine replacement in mild thyroid failure. Transl Res 2008; 151: 224-31.
31. Lee WY, Suh JY, Rhee EJ, Park JS, Sung KC, Kim SW. Plasma CRP, apolipoprotein A-1, apolipoprotein B and Lp(a) levels according to thyroid function status. Arch Med Res 2004; 35: 540-5.
32. Walton KW, Scott PJ, Dykes PW, Davies JW. The significance of alterations in serum lipids in thyroid dysfunction. II. Alterations of the metabolism and turnover of 131-I-low-density lipoproteins in hypothyroidism and thyrotoxicosis. Clin Sci 1965; 29: 217-38.
33. Thompson GR, Soutar AK, Spengel FA, Jadhav A, Gavigan SJ, Myant NB. Defects of receptor-mediated low density lipoprotein catabolism in homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia and hypothyroidism in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 2591-5.
34. Abrams JJ, Grundy SM. Cholesterol metabolism in hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism in man. J Lipid Res 1981; 22: 323-38.
35. Nikkila EA, Kekki M. Plasma triglyceride metabolism in thyroid disease. J Clin Invest 1972; 51: 2103-14.
36. Lam KS, Chan MK, Yeung RT. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol, hepatic lipase and lipoprotein lipase activities in thyroid dysfunction--effects of treatment. Q J Med 1986; 59: 513-21.
37. Dullaart RP, Hoogenberg K, Groener JE, Dikkeschei LD, Erkelens DW, Doorenbos H. The activity of cholesteryl ester transfer protein is decreased in hypothyroidism: a possible contribution to alterations in high-density lipoproteins. Eur J Clin Invest 1990; 20: 581-7.
38. de Bruin TW, van Barlingen H, van Linde-Sibenius Trip M, van Vuurst de Vries AR, Akveld MJ, Erkelens DW. Lipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein B plasma concentrations in hypothyroid, euthyroid, and hyperthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 76: 121-6.
39. Tzotzas T, Krassas GE, Konstantinidis T, Bougoulia M. Changes in lipoprotein(a) levels in overt and subclinical hypothyroidism before and during treatment. Thyroid 2000; 10: 803-8.
40. Klausen IC, Nielsen FE, Hegedus L, Gerdes LU, Charles P, Faergeman O. Treatment of hypothyroidism reduces low-density lipoproteins but not lipoprotein(a). Metabolism 1992; 41: 911-4.
41. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation 2002; 106: 3143-421.
42. Kim CS, Kang JG, Lee SJ, et al. Relationship of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particle size to thyroid function status in Koreans. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 71: 130-6.
43. Roscini AR, Lupattelli G, Siepi D, Pagliaricci S, Pirro M, Mannarino E. Low-density lipoprotein size in primary hypothyroidism. Effects of hormone replacement therapy. Ann Nutr Metab 1999; 43: 374-9.
44. Tunbridge WM, Evered DC, Hall R, et al. Lipid profiles and cardiovascular disease in the Whickham area with particular reference to thyroid failure. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1977; 7: 495-508.
45. Pucci E, Chiovato L, Pinchera A. Thyroid and lipid metabolism. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24(Suppl 2): S109-12.
46. Costantini F, Pierdomenico SD, De Cesare D, et al. Effect of thyroid function on LDL oxidation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1998; 18: 732-7.
47. Morris MS, Bostom AG, Jacques PF, Selhub J, Rosenberg IH. Hyperhomocysteinemia and hypercholesterolemia associated with hypothyroidism in the third US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Atherosclerosis 2001; 155: 195-200.
48. Bicikova M, Tallova J, Hill M, Vanuga A, Putz Z, Tomandl J. Effect of treatment of hypothyroidism on the plasma concentrations of neuroactive steroids and homocysteine. Clin Chem Lab Med 2001; 39: 753-7.
49. Christ-Crain M, Meier C, Guglielmetti M, et al. Elevated C-reactive protein and homocysteine values: cardiovascular risk factors in hypothyroidism? A cross-sectional and a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Atherosclerosis 2003; 166: 379-86.
50. Mayer O, Jr, Simon J, Filipovsky J, Plaskova M, Pikner R. Hypothyroidism in coronary heart disease and its relation to selected risk factors. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2006; 2: 499-506.
51. Kreisman SH, Hennessey JV. Consistent reversible elevations of serum creatinine levels in severe hypothyroidism. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159: 79-82.
52. Cimino JA, Jhangiani S, Schwartz E, Cooperman JM. Riboflavin metabolism in the hypothyroid human adult. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1987; 184: 151-3.
53. Fommei E, Iervasi G. The role of thyroid hormone in blood pressure homeostasis: evidence from short-term hypothyroidism in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 1996-2000.
54. Dernellis J, Panaretou M. Effects of thyroid replacement therapy on arterial blood pressure in patients with hypertension and hypothyroidism. Am Heart J 2002; 143: 718-24.
55. Klein I. Thyroid hormone and the cardiovascular system. Am J Med 1990; 88: 631-7.
56. Hamano K, Inoue M. Increased risk for atherosclerosis estimated by pulse wave velocity in hypothyroidism and its reversal with appropriate thyroxine treatment. Endocr J 2005; 52: 95-101.
57. Dagre AG, Lekakis JP, Papaioannou TG, et al. Arterial stiffness is increased in subjects with hypothyroidism. Int J Cardiol 2005; 103: 1-6.
58. Lekakis J, Papamichael C, Alevizaki M, et al. Flow-mediated, endothelium-dependent vasodilation is impaired in subjects with hypothyroidism, borderline hypothyroidism, and high-normal serum thyrotropin (TSH) values. Thyroid 1997; 7: 411-4.
59. Feig DI, Kang DH, Johnson RJ. Uric acid and cardiovascular risk. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1811-21.
60. Caudarella R, Vescini F, Buffa A, Francucci CM. Hyperphosphatemia: effects on bone metabolism and cardiovascular risk. J Endocrinol Invest 2007; 30: 29-34.
61. Nagasaki T, Inaba M, Henmi Y, et al. Decrease in carotid intimamedia thickness in hypothyroid patients after normalization of thyroid function. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003; 59: 607-12.
62. Raterman HG, van Eijk IC, Voskuyl AE, et al. The metabolic syndrome is amplified in hypothyroid rheumatoid arthritis patients: a cross sectional study. Ann Rheum Dis 2010; 69: 39-42.
63. Jung CH, Sung KC, Shin HS, et al. Thyroid dysfunction and their relation to cardiovascular risk factors such as lipid profile, hsCRP, and waist hip ratio in Korea. Korean J Intern Med 2003; 18: 146-53.
64. Maratou E, Hadjidakis DJ, Kollias A, et al. Studies of insulin resistance in patients with clinical and subclinical hypothyroidism. Eur J Endocrinol 2009; 160: 785-90.
65. Shepherd PR, Kahn BB. Glucose transporters and insulin action implications for insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1999; 341: 248-57.
66. Wiseman SA, Powell JT, Humphries SE, Press M. The magnitude of the hypercholesterolemia of hypothyroidism is associated with variation in the low density lipoprotein receptor gene. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993; 77: 108-12.
67. Elder J, McLelland A, O'Reilly DS, Packard CJ, Series JJ, Shepherd J. The relationship between serum cholesterol and serum thyrotropin, thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine concentrations in suspected hypothyroidism. Ann Clin Biochem 1990; 27 (Pt 2): 110-3.
68. Verdugo C, Perrot L, Ponsin G, Valentin C, Berthezene F. Time-course of alterations of high density lipoproteins (HDL) during thyroxine administration to hypothyroid women. Eur J Clin Invest 1987; 17: 313-6.
69. Beyer IW, Karmali R, Demeester-Mirkine N, Cogan E, Fuss MJ. Serum creatine kinase levels in overt and subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid 1998; 8: 1029-31.
70. Tokinaga K, Oeda T, Suzuki Y, Matsushima Y. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) might cause high elevations of creatine phosphokinase (CK) in patients with unnoticed hypothyroidism. Endocr J 2006; 53: 401-5.
71. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Flanders WD, et al. Serum TSH, T(4), and thyroid antibodies in the United States population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 489-99.
72. Danese MD, Ladenson PW, Meinert CL, Powe NR. Clinical review 115: effect of thyroxine therapy on serum lipoproteins in patients with mild thyroid failure: a quantitative review of the literature. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000; 85: 2993-3001.
73. Samuels MH. Subclinical thyroid disease in the elderly. Thyroid 1998; 8: 803-13.
74. Luboshitzky R, Aviv A, Herer P, Lavie L. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in women with subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid 2002; 12: 421-5.
75. Vanderpump MP, Tunbridge WM, French JM, et al. The incidence of thyroid disorders in the community: a twenty-year follow-up of the Whickham Survey. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1995; 43: 55-68.
76. Tanis BC, Westendorp GJ, Smelt HM. Effect of thyroid substitution on hypercholesterolaemia in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: a reanalysis of intervention studies. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1996; 44: 643-9.
77. Erem C. Blood coagulation, fibrinolytic activity and lipid profile in subclinical thyroid disease: subclinical hyperthyroidism increases plasma factor X activity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2006; 64: 323-9.
78. Duman D, Demirtunc R, Sahin S, Esertas K. The effects of simvastatin and levothyroxine on intima-media thickness of the carotid artery in female normolipemic patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: a prospective, randomized-controlled study. J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2007; 8: 1007-11.
79. Monzani F, Caraccio N, Kozakowa M, et al. Effect of levothyroxine replacement on lipid profile and intima-media thickness in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 2099-106.
80. Walsh JP, Bremner AP, Bulsara MK, et al. Thyroid dysfunction and serum lipids: a community-based study. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2005; 63: 670-5.
81. Milionis HJ, Tambaki AP, Kanioglou CN, Elisaf MS, Tselepis AD, Tsatsoulis A. Thyroid substitution therapy induces high-density lipoprotein-associated platelet-activating factor-acetylhydrolase in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: a potential antiatherogenic effect. Thyroid 2005; 15: 455-60.
82. Toruner F, Altinova AE, Karakoc A, et al. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism. Adv Ther 2008; 25: 430-7.
83. Erdem TY, Ercan M, Ugurlu S, Balci H, Acbay O, Gundogdu S. Plasma viscosity, an early cardiovascular risk factor in women with subclinical hypothyroidism. Clin Hemorheol Microcirc 2008; 38: 219-25.
84. Michalopoulou G, Alevizaki M, Piperingos G, et al. High serum cholesterol levels in persons with 'high-normal' TSH levels: should one extend the definition of subclinical hypothyroidism? Eur J Endocrinol 1998; 138: 141-5.
85. Efstathiadou Z, Bitsis S, Milionis HJ, et al. Lipid profile in subclinical hypothyroidism: is L-thyroxine substitution beneficial? Eur J Endocrinol 2001; 145: 705-10.
86. Iqbal A, Jorde R, Figenschau Y. Serum lipid levels in relation to serum thyroid-stimulating hormone and the effect of thyroxine treatment on serum lipid levels in subjects with subclinical hypothyroidism: the Tromso Study. J Intern Med 2006; 260: 53-61.
87. Kung AW, Pang RW, Janus ED. Elevated serum lipoprotein(a) in subclinical hypothyroidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1995; 43: 445-9.
88. Caraccio N, Ferrannini E, Monzani F. Lipoprotein profile inm subclinical hypothyroidism: response to levothyroxine replacement, a randomized placebo-controlled study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002; 87: 1533-8.
89. Milionis HJ, Efstathiadou Z, Tselepis AD, et al. Lipoprotein (a) levels and apolipoprotein (a) isoform size in patients with subclinical hypothyroidism: effect of treatment with levothyroxine. Thyroid 2003; 13: 365-9.
90. Lotz H, Salabe GB. Lipoprotein(a) increase associated with thyroid autoimmunity. Eur J Endocrinol 1997; 136: 87-91.
91. Bairaktari ET, Tselepis AD, Millionis HJ, Elisaf MS. Lipoprotein (a) levels, apolipoprotein (a) phenotypes and thyroid autoimmunity. Eur J Endocrinol 1999; 140: 474-6.
92. Bairaktari ET, Milionis HJ, Katopodis K, et al. Lipoprotein (a), Apolipoprotein (a) phenotypes, and thyroid autoimmunity in uremic patients. Endocrinologist 2000; 10: 383-88.
93. Brenta G, Berg G, Arias P, et al. Lipoprotein alterations, hepatic lipase activity, and insulin sensitivity in subclinical hypothyroidism: response to L-T(4) treatment. Thyroid 2007; 17: 453-60.
94. Hueston WJ, Pearson WS. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of hypercholesterolemia. Ann Fam Med 2004; 2: 351-5.
95. Yildirimkaya M, Ozata M, Yilmaz K, Kilinc C, Gundogan MA, Kutluay T. Lipoprotein(a) concentration in subclinical hypothyroidism before and after levo-thyroxine therapy. Endocr J 1996; 43: 731-6.
96. Lippi G, Targher G, Montagnana M, Salvagno GL, Guidi GC. Relationship between lipoprotein(a) and thyroid function status in the general population. Arch Med Res 2007; 38: 905-6.
97. Bakker SJ, ter Maaten JC, Popp-Snijders C, Slaets JP, Heine RJ, Gans RO. The relationship between thyrotropin and low density lipoprotein cholesterol is modified by insulin sensitivity in healthy euthyroid subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 1206-11.
98. Kahaly GJ. Cardiovascular and atherogenic aspects of subclinical hypothyroidism. Thyroid 2000; 10: 665-79.
99. Taddei S, Caraccio N, Virdis A, et al. Impaired endothelium dependent vasodilatation in subclinical hypothyroidism: beneficial effect of levothyroxine therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 3731-7.
100. Cabral MD, Teixeira PF, Silva NA, et al. Normal flow-mediated vasodilatation of the brachial artery and carotid artery intima-media thickness in subclinical hypothyroidism. Braz J Med Biol Res 2009; 42: 426-32.
101. Yun KH, Jeong MH, Oh SK, et al. Relationship of thyroid stimulating hormone with coronary atherosclerosis in angina patients. Int J Cardiol 2007; 122: 56-60.
102. Chiche F, Jublanc C, Coudert M, Carreau V, Kahn JF, Bruckert E. Hypothyroidism is not associated with increased carotid atherosclerosis when cardiovascular risk factors are accounted for in hyperlipidemic patients. Atherosclerosis 2009; 203: 269-76.
103. Dessein PH, Joffe BI, Stanwix AE. Subclinical hypothyroidism is associated with insulin resistance in rheumatoid arthritis. Thyroid 2004; 14: 443-6.
104. Packard CJ, O'Reilly DS, Caslake MJ, et al. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 as an independent predictor of coronary heart disease. West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1148-55.
105. Mertens A, Holvoet P. Oxidized LDL and HDL: antagonists in atherothrombosis. FASEB J 2001; 15: 2073-84.
106. Jublanc C, Bruckert E, Giral P, et al. Relationship of circulating C-reactive protein levels to thyroid status and cardiovascular risk in hyperlipidemic euthyroid subjects: low free thyroxine is associated with elevated hsCRP. Atherosclerosis 2004; 172: 7-11.
107. Asvold BO, Bjoro T, Nilsen TI, Vatten LJ. Association between blood pressure and serum thyroid-stimulating hormone concentration within the reference range: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 841-5.
108. Duan Y, Peng W, Wang X, et al. Community-based study of the association of subclinical thyroid dysfunction with blood pressure. Endocrine 2009; 35: 136-142.
109. Muller B, Zulewski H, Huber P, Ratcliffe JG, Staub JJ. Impaired action of thyroid hormone associated with smoking in women with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 964-9.
110. Rodondi N, Aujesky D, Vittinghoff E, Cornuz J, Bauer DC. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. Am J Med 2006; 119: 541-51.
111. Rodondi N, Newman AB, Vittinghoff E, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and the risk of heart failure, other cardiovascular events, and death. Arch Intern Med 2005; 165: 2460-6.
112. Haentjens P, Van Meerhaeghe A, Poppe K, Velkeniers B. Subclinical thyroid dysfunction and mortality: an estimate of relative and absolute excess all-cause mortality based on time-to-event data from cohort studies. Eur J Endocrinol 2008; 159: 329-41.
113. Imaizumi M, Akahoshi M, Ichimaru S, et al. Risk for ischemic heart disease and all-cause mortality in subclinical hypothyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89: 3365-70.
114. Hak AE, Pols HA, Visser TJ, Drexhage HA, Hofman A, Witteman JC. Subclinical hypothyroidism is an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction in elderly women: the Rotterdam Study. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 270-8.
115. Cappola AR, Fried LP, Arnold AM, et al. Thyroid status, cardiovascular risk, and mortality in older adults. JAMA 2006; 295: 1033-41.
116. Gussekloo J, van Exel E, de Craen AJ, Meinders AE, Frolich M, Westendorp RG. Thyroid status, disability and cognitive function, and survival in old age. JAMA 2004; 292: 2591-9.
117. Mikhail GS, Alshammari SM, Alenezi MY, Mansour M, Khalil NA. Increased atherogenic low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in untreated subclinical hypothyroidism. Endocr Pract 2008; 14: 570-5.
118. Ganotakis ES, Mandalaki K, Tampakaki M, et al. Subclinical hypothyroidism and lipid abnormalities in older women attending a vascular disease prevention clinic: effect of thyroid replacement therapy. Angiology 2003; 54: 569-76.
119. Meier C, Staub JJ, Roth CB, et al. TSH-controlled L-thyroxine therapy reduces cholesterol levels and clinical symptoms in subclinical hypothyroidism: a double blind, placebo-controlled trial (Basel Thyroid Study). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 4860-6.
120. Razvi S, Ingoe L, Keeka G, Oates C, McMillan C, Weaver JU. The beneficial effect of L-thyroxine on cardiovascular risk factors, endothelial function, and quality of life in subclinical hypothyroidism: randomized, crossover trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 1715-23.
121. Duman D, Sahin S, Esertas K, Demirtunc R. Simvastatin improves endothelial function in patents with subclinical hypothyroidism. Heart Vessels 2007; 22: 88-93.
122. Kong WM, Sheikh MH, Lumb PJ, et al. A 6-month randomized trial of thyroxine treatment in women with mild subclinical hypothyroidism. Am J Med 2002; 112: 348-54.
123. Villar HC, Saconato H, Valente O, Atallah AN. Thyroid hormone replacement for subclinical hypothyroidism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007: CD003419.
124. Fatourechi V. Subclinical hypothyroidism: an update for primary care physicians. Mayo Clin Proc 2009; 84: 65-71.
125. Biondi B, Cooper DS. The clinical significance of subclinical thyroid dysfunction. Endocr Rev 2008; 29: 76-131.
126. Feldt-Rasmussen U. Is the treatment of subclinical hypothyroidism beneficial? Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2009; 5: 86-7.
127. Cooper DS. Subclinical thyroid disease: a clinician's perspective. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 135-8.
128. Helfand M, Redfern CC. Clinical guideline, part 2. Screening for thyroid disease: an update. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 144-58.
129. Ayala AR, Danese MD, Ladenson PW. When to treat mild hypothyroidism. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2000; 29: 399-415.
130. Kung AW, Pang RW, Lauder I, Lam KS, Janus ED. Changes in serum lipoprotein(a) and lipids during treatment of hyperthyroidism. Clin Chem 1995; 41: 226-31.
131. Aviram M, Luboshitzky R, Brook JG. Lipid and lipoprotein pattern in thyroid dysfunction and the effect of therapy. Clin Biochem 1982; 15: 62-6.
132. Cooper DS. Approach to the patient with subclinical hyperthyroidism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007; 92: 3-9.
133. Bergeron GA, Goldsmith R, Schiller NB. Myocardial infarction, severe reversible ischemia, and shock following excess thyroid administration in a woman with normal coronary arteries. Arch Intern Med 1988; 148: 1450-3.
134. Gowda RM, Khan IA, Soodini G, Vasavada BC, Sacchi TJ. Acute myocardial infarction with normal coronary arteries associated with iatrogenic hyperthyroidism. Int J Cardiol 2003; 90: 327-9.
135. Patane S, Marte F. Atrial fibrillation and acute myocardial infarction without significant coronary stenoses associated with subclinical hyperthyroidism and erythrocytosis. Int J Cardiol 2009 (Article in press).
136. Patane S, Marte F, Curro A, Cimino C. Recurrent acute pulmonary embolism and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation associated with subclinical hyperthyroidism. Int J Cardiol 2010; 142: e25-6.
137. Liberopoulos E, Miltiadous G, Elisaf M. Impressive lipid changes following hypolipidaemic drug administration can unveil subclinical hyperthyroidism. Diabetes Obes Metab 2001; 3: 97-8.
138. Liberopoulos EN, Elisaf MS. Dyslipidemia in patients with thyroid disorders. Hormones (Athens) 2002; 1: 218-23.
139. Danese MD, Powe NR, Sawin CT, Ladenson PW. Screening for mild thyroid failure at the periodic health examination: a decision and cost-effectiveness analysis. JAMA 1996; 276: 285-92.
140. Ladenson PW, Singer PA, Ain KB, et al. American Thyroid Association guidelines for detection of thyroid dysfunction. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1573-5.
141. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for thyroid disease: recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2004; 140: 125-7.