Epidemiology of endemic systemic fungal infections in Latin America

Medical Mycology

Volumn 49, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 785-798

  Colombo, Arnaldo Lopes ^a   Tobn, Angela ^b   Restrepo, Angela ^b   Queiroz Telles, Flavio ^c   Nucci, Marcio ^d  

^a FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b Unidad de Biología Celular y Molecular   (Colombia)

^c FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF PARANÁ   (Brazil)

^d FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Coccidioidomycosis; Endemic mycoses; Histoplasmosis; Latin America; Paracoccidioidomycosis

Indexed keywords

FLUDROCORTISONE; ITRACONAZOLE; PREDNISOLONE; SULFONAMIDE; TRIAZOLE; VORICONAZOLE;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ADRENAL INSUFFICIENCY; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ARGENTINA; BRAZIL; COCCIDIOIDES; COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; ENDEMIC DISEASE; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HISTOPLASMA CAPSULATUM; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMAN; IMMUNE DEFICIENCY; IMMUNITY; LUNG FIBROSIS; NONHUMAN; PARACOCCIDIOIDES BRASILIENSIS; REVIEW; SMOKING; SOUTH AMERICAN BLASTOMYCOSIS; SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA;

COCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS; ENDEMIC DISEASES; HISTOPLASMOSIS; HUMANS; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED HOST; LATIN AMERICA; MYCOSES; PARACOCCIDIOIDOMYCOSIS;

EID: 80054691795     PISSN: 13693786     EISSN: 14602709     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/13693786.2011.577821     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Queiroz-Telles F. Inf uence of alternating coffee and sugar cane agriculture in the incidence of paracoccidioidomycosis. Proceeding of the Xth International Congress on paracoccidioidomycosis; August, 7 10. 2008, p. 129.
2. Kasuga T, White TJ, Koenig G, et al. Phylogeography of the fungal pathogen Histoplasma capsulatum. Mol Ecol 2003; 12: 3383-3401. (Pubitemid 37496699)
3. Travassos LR, Taborda CP, Colombo AL. Treatment options for paracoccidioidomycosis and new strategies investigated. Expert Rev Antiinfect Ther 2008; 6: 251-262.
4. Sculpher M, Fenwick E, Claxton K. Assessing quality in decision analytic cost-effectiveness models. A suggested framework and example of application. Pharmaco Economics 2000; 17: 461-477. (Pubitemid 30398805)
5. Matute DR, McEwen JG, Puccia R, et al. Cryptic speciation and recombination in the fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis as revealed by gene genealogies. Mol Biol Evol 2006; 23: 65-73. (Pubitemid 41785954)
6. Kauffman CA. Histoplasmosis: a clinical and laboratory update. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007; 20: 115-132. (Pubitemid 46167770)
7. Nucci M, Arnaldo L, Colombo AL, Queiroz-Telles F. Paracoccidi- oidomycosis. Curr Fungal Infect Rep 2009; 3: 15-20.
8. Bethlem EP, Capone D, Maranhao B, Carvalho CRR, Wanke B. Paracoccidioidomycosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med 1999; 5: 319-325.
9. Wanke B, Abidon-Aide M. Paracoccidioidomycosis. J Bras Pneumol 2009; 35: 1245-1249.
10. Laniado-Laborin R. Coccidioidomycosis and other endemic mycoses in Mexico. Rev Iberoam Micol 2007; 24: 249-258.
11. Almeida OP, Jacks J, Jr, Scully C. Paracoccidioidomycosis of the mouth: an emerging deep mycosis. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 2003; 14: 377-383.
12. Restrepo A, Benard G, de Castro CC, Agudelo CA, Tobon AM. Pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 29: 182-197. (Pubitemid 351438996)
13. Restrepo A, Tobon AM, Agudelo CA. Paracoccidioisomycosis. In: Hospenthal DR, Rinaldi MG, Michael G, eds. Diagnosis and Treatment of Human Mycoses. New Jersey, Humana Press, 2008: 331-342.
14. de Almeida SM. Central nervous system paracoccidioidomycosis: an overview. Braz J Infect Dis 2005; 9: 126-133. (Pubitemid 41664042)
15. Wanke B, Londero AT. Epidemiology and paracoccidioidomycosis infection. In: Franco M, da Silva Lacaz C, Restrepo-Moreno A, Del Negro G, eds. Paracoccidioidomycosis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1994: 109-117.
16. Bagagli E, Theodoro RC, Bosco SMG, McEwen JG. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: phylogenetic and ecological aspects. Mycopathologia 2008; 165: 197-207. (Pubitemid 351606078)
17. Lupi O, Tyring SK, McGinnis MR. Tropical dermatology: fungal tropical diseases. J Am Acad Dermatol 2005; 53: 931-951.
18. Restrepo A, McEwen JG, Castaneda E. The habitat of Paracoc-cidioides brasiliensis: how far from solving the riddle? Med Mycol 2001; 39: 233-241. (Pubitemid 32586250)
19. Calle D, Rosero DS, Orozco LC, et al. Paracoccidioidomycosis in Colombia: an ecological study. Epidemiol Infect 2001; 126: 309-315.
20. Simoes LB, Marques SA, Bagagli E. Distribution of paracoccid- ioidomycosis: determination of ecologic correlates through spatial analyses. Med Mycol 2004; 42: 517-523. (Pubitemid 40109564)
21. Barrozo LV, Mendes RP, Marques SA, et al. Climate and acute/subacute paracoccidioidomycosis in a hyper-endemic area in Brazil. Int J Epidemiol 2009; 38: 1642-1649.
22. Bagagli E, Sano A, Coelho KI, et al. Isolation of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis from armadillos (Dasypus noveminctus) captured in an endemic area of paracoccidioidomycosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 58: 505-512. (Pubitemid 28183265)
23. Restrepo A. Morphological aspects of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis in lymph nodes: implications for the prolonged latency of paracoc-cidioidomycosis? Med Mycol 2000; 38: 317-322. (Pubitemid 30665335)
24. Andrade RV, Da Silva SP, Torres FA, et al. Overview and perspectives the transcriptome of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Rev Iberoam Micol 2005; 22: 203-212. (Pubitemid 43241080)
25. Ferreira MS. Paracoccidioidomycosis. Paediatr Resp Rev 2009; 10: 161-165.
26. dos Santos WA, da Silva BM, Passos ED, Zandonade E, Falqueto A. Association between smoking and paracoccidioidomycosis: a case-control study in the state of Espirito Santo, Brazil [in Portuguese]. Cad Saude Publica. 2003, 19; 245-253.
27. Restrepo A, Salazar ME, Cano LE, et al. Estrogens inhibit mycelium-to-yeast transformation in the fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis: implications for resistance of females to paracoccidioidomycosis. Infect Immun 1984; 46: 346-353. (Pubitemid 15204602)
28. Salazar ME, Restrepo A, Stevens DA. Inhibition by estrogens of conidium-to-yeast conversion in the fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Infect Immun 1988; 56: 711-713. (Pubitemid 18058808)
29. Nobre V, Braga E, Rayes A, et al. Opportunistic infections in patients with AIDS admitted to a university hospital of the Southeast of Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2003; 45: 69-74. (Pubitemid 36565708)
30. Silva-Vergara ML, Teixeira AC, Curi VGM, et al. Paracoccid-ioidomycosis associated with human immunodef ciency virus infection. Report of 10 cases. Med Mycol 2003; 41: 259-263. (Pubitemid 37059205)
31. Paniago AMM, de Freitas ACC, Aguiar ESA, et al. Paracoccidioido-mycosis in patients with human immunodef ciency virus: review of 12 cases observed in an endemic region in Brazil. J Infect 2005; 51: 248-252.
32. Morejon KM, Machado AA, Martinez R. Paracoccidioidomycosis in patients infected with and not infected with human immunodef ciency virus: a case-control study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2009; 80: 359-366.
33. Prado M, da Silva MB, Laurenti R, Travassos LR, Taborda CP. Mortality due to systemic mycoses as a primary cause of death or in association with AIDS in Brazil: a review from 1996 to 2006. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2009; 104: 513-521.
34. Cermeno JR, Hernandez I, Cermeno JJ, et al. Epidemiological survey of histoplasmine and paracoccidioidine skin reactivity in an agricultural area in Bolivar state, Venezuela. Eur J Epidemiol 2004; 19: 189-193. (Pubitemid 38374569)
35. Cermeno JR, Cermeno JJ, Hernandez I, et al. Histoplasmine and paracoccidiodine epidemiological study in Upata, Bolivar state, Venezuela. Trop Med Int Health 2005; 10: 216-219. (Pubitemid 40388967)
36. Cadavid D, Restrepo A. Factors associated with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis infection among permanent residents of three endemic areas in Colombia. Epidemiol Infect 1993; 111: 121-133. (Pubitemid 23241786)
37. van Gelderen de Komaid A, Duran EL. Histoplasmosis in northwestern Argentina. II: Prevalence of Histoplasmosis capsulati and paracoccidioidomycosis in the population south of Chuscha, Gonzalo and Potrero in the province of Tucuman. Mycopathologia 1995; 129: 17-23.
38. van Gelderen de Komaid A, Duran EL, Madero AM, Carizo V. Histoplasmosis in northwestern Argentina. Epidemiological survey of Chuscha and La Higuera in the province of Tucuman. Eur J Epidemiol 1992; 8: 206-210.
39. van Gelderen de Komaid A, Duran E, Borges de Kestelman I. Histo-plasmosis and paracoccidioidomycosis in northwestern Argentina III. Epidemiological survey in Vipos, La Toma, and Choromoro-Trancas, Tucuman, Argentina. Eur J Epidemiol 1999; 15: 383-388. (Pubitemid 29287756)
40. Lima FGC, Cardoso CL, Alvarenga M, Netto CF. Paracoccidioidomy-cosis (South American blastomycosis): epidemiologic survey with paracoccidioidin of healthy individuals of various age groups [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 1975; 9: 137-142.
41. Veronesi R, Brolio R, Netto CF, et al. Simultaneous intradermal reactions of several dermojet-injected antigens. Their importance in immuno- epidemiological studies [in Portuguese]. Rev Hosp Das Clin 1975; 30: 357-361.
42. Netto CF, de Almeida Neto JM, Guerra MAG, da Costa EO. Epidemic histoplasmosis. New outbreak in the north of the coast of the state of Sao Paulo. Epidemiological survey with histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin [in Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1976; 18: 108-112.
43. Campos CM, Netto CF. Paracoccidioidin and histoplasmin tests in urban inhabitants of Braganca Paulista, Sao Paulo State, Brazil [in Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1978; 20: 289-292. (Pubitemid 9044702)
44. Mok WY, Netto CF. Paracoccidioidin and histoplasmin sensitivity in Coari (state of Amazonas), Brazil. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1978; 27: 808-814. (Pubitemid 8398088)
45. de Andrade JAF, de Andrade TM, Lacaz CDS, et al. Survey on para-coccidioidin in a population of Bahia (Brazil) [in Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1984; 26: 1-6.
46. Bagatin E. Epidemiological survey with antigen of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis on urban areas of Sorocaba, Sao Paulo State [in Portuguese]. Annais Brasileiros de Dermotologia 1986; 61: 5-8.
47. Guedes R, Borges NB, Andrade ELD. Epidemiologic study of the upper Rio Negro region of the Amazon [in Portuguese]. Resid Med 1986; 15: 23-27.
48. Hay RJ, Rose P, Jones TR. Paracoccidioidin sensitization in Guyana: a preliminary skin test survey in hospitalized patients and laboratory workers. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1987; 81: 46-48.
49. Pereira AJCS. Intradermic survey for paracoccidioidomycosis in Goi á s [in Portuguese]. Rev Patolog Trop 1988; 17: 157-186.
50. da Costa W, Wanke B, Barros MAO. Paracoccidioidomycosis and Histoplasma capsulata: intradermic survey in 3 municipalities of the State of Paraiba [in Portuguese]. Ciencia Cultura Saude 1989; 11: 181-188.
51. de Martin MC, de Lopez C. Prevalence of Paracoccidioides brasil-iensis infection in Panamanian children. Preliminary report [in Spanish]. Rev Med Panama 1989; 14: 135-138.
52. Diogenes MJ, Goncalves HM, Mapurunga AC, et al. Histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin reactions in Serra de Pereiro. (Ceara State-Brazil) [in. Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1990; 32: 116-120.
53. Santos MCP, Pedrosa CMS. Epidemiologic survey with histoplasmin and paracoccidioidine in Arapiraca-Alagoas [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 1990; 23: 213-215.
54. Coimbra CEA, Jr, Wanke B, Santos RV, et al. Paracoccidioidin and histoplasmin sensitivity in Tupi-Monde Amerindian populations from Brazilian Amazonia. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1994; 88: 197-207. (Pubitemid 24201904)
55. Mangiaterra M, Alonso J, Galvan M, Giusiano G, Gorodner J. Histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin skin reactivity in infantile population of northern Argentina. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1996; 38: 349-353. (Pubitemid 127541823)
56. Rodrigues MT, de Resende MA. Epidemiologic skin test survey of sensitivity to paracoccidioidin, histoplasmin and sporotrichin among gold mine workers of Morro Velho Mining, Brazil. Mycopathologia 1996; 135: 89-98. (Pubitemid 27099381)
57. Kalmar EM, Alencar FE, Alves FP, et al. Paracoccidioidomycosis: an epidemiologic survey in a pediatric population from the Brazilian Amazon using skin tests. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004; 71: 82-86. (Pubitemid 38902649)
58. Fornajeiro N, Maluf ML, Takahachi G, Svidzinski TI. Paracoccid- ioidomycosis epidemiological survey using gp43, in two cities of northwestern region of Parana, Brazil [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2005; 38: 191-193. (Pubitemid 40524198)
59. Zembrzuski MM, Bassanesi MC, Wagner LC, Severo LC. An intra-dermal test with histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin in 2 regions of Rio Grande do Sul [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 1996; 29: 1-3.
60. Cermeno J, Cermeno J, Godoy G, et al. Epidemiological study of paracoccidioidomycosis and histoplasmosis in a suburb of San Felix city, Bolivar state, Venezuela. Invest Clin 2009; 50: 213-220.
61. Fava SdC, Netto CF. Epidemiologic surveys of histoplasmin and paracoccidioidin sensitivity in Brazil. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1998; 40: 155-164.
62. Tobon AM, Orozco B, Estrada S, et al. Paracoccidioidomycosis and AIDS: report of the f rst two Colombian cases. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1998; 40: 377-381. (Pubitemid 128472815)
63. Mangiaterra ML, Giusiano GE, Alonso JM, Gorodner JO. Paracoc-cidioides brasiliensis infection in a subtropical region with important environmental changes [in French]. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1999; 92: 173-176.
64. Canteros CE, Rivas MC, Soria M, et al. Immunodiagnosis of endemic mycoses and bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: a multicenter study in Argentina [in Spanish]. Rev Argent Microbiol 2004; 36: 68-74. (Pubitemid 39180805)
65. Tuder RM, El Ibrahim R, Godoy CE, de Brito T. Pathology of the human pulmonary paracoccidioidomycosis. Mycopathologia 1985; 92: 179-188. (Pubitemid 16200284)
66. Pereira RM, Bucaretchi F, Barison EM, Hessel G, Tresoldi AT. Para-coccidioidomycosis in children: clinical presentation, follow-up and outcome. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 2004; 46: 127-131. (Pubitemid 38917734)
67. do Valle ACF, Guimaraes MRC, Cuba J, Wanke B, Tendrich M. Recovery of adrenal function after treatment of paracoccidioidomy-cosis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1993; 48: 626-629. (Pubitemid 23187190)
68. Restrepo A, Tobon AM, Agudelo CA, et al. Co-existence of integumentary lesions and lung X-ray abnormalities in patients with para-coccidioidomycosis (PCM). Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008; 79: 159-163.
69. Coutinho ZF, Silva D, Lazera M, et al. Paracoccidioidomycosis mortality in Brazil (1980-1995). Cad Saude Publica 2002; 18: 1441-1454.
70. Bittencourt JI, de Oliveira RM, Coutinho ZF. Paracoccidioidomyco-sis mortality in the State of Parana, Brazil, 1980/1998. Cad Saude Publica 2005; 21: 1856-1864.
71. Paniago AMM, Aguiar JIA, Aguiar ES, et al. Paracoccidioidomy-cosis: a clinical and epidemiological study of 422 cases observed in Mato Grosso do Sul [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2003; 36: 455-459. (Pubitemid 37012338)
72. Tobon AM, Ordonez N, Castillo J. Systemic mycoses in children [in Spanish]. Actualizaciones Pediatricas 1996; 6: 59-65.
73. Tobon AM, Agudelo CA, Osorio ML, et al. Residual pulmonary abnormalities in adult patients with chronic paracoccidioidomyco-sis: prolonged follow-up after itraconazole therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 37: 898-904. (Pubitemid 37267203)
74. Queiroz-Telles F, Goldani LZ, Schlamm HT, et al. An open-label comparative pilot study of oral voriconazole and itraconazole for long-term treatment of paracoccidioidomycosis. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 1462-1499.
75. Abad A, Gomez I, Velez P, Restrepo A. Adrenal function in para-coccidioidomycosis: a prospective study in patients before and after ketoconazole therapy. Infection 1986; 14: 22-26. (Pubitemid 16132896)
76. Colombo AL, Faical S, Kater CE. Systematic evaluation of the adrenocortical function in patients with paracoccidioidomycosis. Mycopathologia 1994; 127: 89-93. (Pubitemid 2139124)
77. Onate JM, Tobon AM, Restrepo A. Adrenal gland insuff ciency secondary to paracoccidioidomycosis [in Spanish]. Biomedica 2002; 22: 280-286.
78. Muniz MM, Morais E Silva Tavares P, Meyer W, Nosanchuk JD, Zancope-Oliveira RM. Comparison of different DNA-based methods for molecular typing of Histoplasma capsulatum. Appl Env Microbiol 2010; 76: 4438-4447.
79. Chin TD, Tosh FE, Weeks RJ. Ecological and epidemiological studies of histoplasmosis in the United States of America. Mycopathol Mycol Appl 1970; 41: 35-44.
80. Cury GC, Diniz FA, Cruz AG, Hobaika AB. Outbreak of histoplas-mosis in Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais, Brazil [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2001; 34: 483-486. (Pubitemid 33010030)
81. Wheat J. Endemic mycoses in AIDS: a clinical review. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995; 8: 146-159.
82. Cano MVC, Hajjeh RA. The epidemiology of histoplasmosis: a review. Semin Respir Infect 2001; 16: 109-118. (Pubitemid 32606848)
83. Wheat LJ, Freifeld AG, Kleiman MB, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of patients with histoplasmosis: 2007 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 807-825. (Pubitemid 47580372)
84. Goodwin RA, Jr., Owens FT, Snell JD, et al. Chronic pulmonary histoplasmosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 1976; 55: 413-452. (Pubitemid 8007290)
85. Goodwin RA, Jr., Shapiro JL, Thurman GH, Thurman SS, Des Prez RM. Disseminated histoplasmosis: clinical and pathologic correlations. Medicine (Baltimore) 1980; 59: 1-33. (Pubitemid 10131810)
86. Wheat J. Histoplasmosis and coccidioidomycosis in individuals with AIDS. A clinical review. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1994; 8: 467-482. (Pubitemid 24204400)
87. Mora DJ, dos Santos CTB, Silva-Vergara ML. Disseminated his-toplasmosis in acquired immunodef ciency syndrome patients in Uberaba, MG, Brazil. Mycoses 2008; 51: 136-140. (Pubitemid 351191116)
88. Dupont B, Crewe Brown HH, Westermann K, et al. Mycoses in AIDS. Med Mycol 2000; 38: 259-267. (Pubitemid 32094074)
89. Gutierrez ME, Canton A, Sosa N, Puga E, Talavera L. Disseminated histoplasmosis in patients with AIDS in Panama: a review of 104 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1199-1202. (Pubitemid 40490249)
90. Tobon AM, Agudelo CA, Rosero DS, et al. Disseminated histoplas-mosis: a comparative study between patients with acquired immu-nodef ciency syndrome and non-human immunodef ciency virus-infected individuals. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005; 73: 576-582. (Pubitemid 41324263)
91. Sathapatayavongs B, Batteiger BE, Wheat J, Slama TG, Wass JL. Clinical and laboratory features of disseminated histoplasmosis during two large urban outbreaks. Medicine (Baltimore) 1983; 62: 263-270. (Pubitemid 13021483)
92. Hammoud ZT, Rose AS, Hage CA, et al. Surgical management of pulmonary and mediastinal sequelae of histoplasmosis: a challenging spectrum. Ann Thorac Surg 2009; 88: 399-403.
93. Daher EF, Silva GB, Jr., Barros FAS, et al. Clinical and laboratory features of disseminated histoplasmosis in HIV patients from Brazil. Trop Med Int Health 2007; 12: 1108-1115. (Pubitemid 47414944)
94. Sarosi GA, Voth DW, Dahl BA, Doto IL, Tosh FE. Disseminated histo-plasmosis: results of long-term follow up. A Center for Disease Control cooperative mycoses study. Ann Intern Med 1971; 75: 511-516.
95. Wilson DA, Muchmore HG, Tisdal RG, Fahmy A, Pitha JV. Histoplasmosis of the adrenal glands studied by CT. Radiology 1984; 150: 779-783. (Pubitemid 14192074)
96. Cermeno V, Cermeno JR, Cova V, Perez GM. Adrenocortical function in patients with systemic mycoses [in Spanish]. Invest Clin 2007; 48: 341-348.
97. Baraia-Etxaburu AJ, Astigarraga AB, Elorza OR, et al. Primary adrenal failure and AIDS: report of 11 cases and review of the literature [in Spanish]. Rev Clin Esp 1998; 198: 74-79.
98. Wheat LJ, Musial CE, Jenny-Avital E. Diagnosis and management of central nervous system histoplasmosis. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 844-852. (Pubitemid 40365505)
99. Fava Netto C, Guerra MAG, da Costa EO. Contribution to the immunology of paracoccidioidomycosis. Intradermal reactions in patients with 2 heterologous and 2 homologous antigens [in Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1976; 18:186-190.
100. Moraes MAP, Almeida MMR. Isolation of Histoplasma capsulatum from the soil in Humboldt (Mato Grosso state, Brazil) [in Portuguese]. Acta Amaz (Manaus) 1976; 6: 43-47.
101. Suarez Hernandez M, Fernandez Andreu CM, Estrada Ortiz A, Cisneros Despaigne E. Histoplasmin reactivity in poultry farm workers in the province of Ciego de Avila, Cuba [in Spanish]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1992; 34: 329-333.
102. Gascon J, Torres JM, Jimenez M, et al. Histoplasmosis infection in Spanish travelers to Latin America. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005; 24: 839-841. (Pubitemid 43042791)
103. Rippon JW. Histoplasmosis (Histoplasmosis capsulati). In: Rippon, JW, ed. Medical Mycology. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders Company, 1988: 381-423.
104. Murillo J, Castro KG. HIV infection and AIDS in Latin America. Epidemiologic features and clinical manifestations. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1994; 8: 1-11. (Pubitemid 24114813)
105. Mata-Essayag S, Colella MT, Rosello A, et al. Histoplasmosis: a study of 158 cases in Venezuela, 2000-2005. Medicine (Baltimore) 2008; 87: 193-202.
106. Tobon AM, Franco L, Espinal D, et al. Disseminated histoplasmo-sis in children: the role of itraconazole therapy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1996; 15: 1002-1008. (Pubitemid 26403794)
107. Oliveira FDM, Unis G, Severo LC. An outbreak of histoplasmosis in the city of Blumenau, Santa Catarina. J Bras Pneumol 2006; 32: 375-378.
108. Karimi K, Wheat LJ, Connolly P, et al. Differences in histoplasmosis in patients with acquired immunodef ciency syndrome in the United States and Brazil. J Infect Dis 2002; 186: 1655-1660. (Pubitemid 35379644)
109. Unis G, Oliveira FdM, Severo LC. Disseminated histoplasmosis in Rio Grande do Sul [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2004; 37: 463-468. (Pubitemid 40069439)
110. Goldani LZ, Aquino VR, Lunardi LW, Cunha VS, Santos RP. Two specif c strains of Histoplasma capsulatum causing mucocutaneous manifestations of histoplasmosis: preliminary analysis of a frequent manifestation of histoplasmosis in southern Brazil. Mycopathologia 2009; 167: 181-186.
111. Wolff M. Outbreak of acute histoplasmosis in Chilean travelers to the Ecuadorian jungle: an example of geographic medicine [in Spanish]. Rev Med Chil 1999; 127: 1359-1364.
112. Lyon GM, Bravo AV, Espino A, et al. Histoplasmosis associated with exploring a bat-inhabited cave in Costa Rica, 1998-1999. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2004; 70: 438-442. (Pubitemid 38525560)
113. Weinberg M, Weeks J, Lance-Parker S, et al. Severe histoplasmosis in travelers to Nicaragua. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 1322-1325. (Pubitemid 37210579)
114. Odio CM, Navarrete M, Carrillo JM, Mora L, Carranza A. Disseminated histoplasmosis in infants. Pediatr Infect Dis 1999; 18: 1065-1068.
115. Eza D, Cerrillo G, Moore DAJ, et al. Postmortem f ndings and opportunistic infections in HIV-positive patients from a public hospital in Peru. Pathol Res Pract 2006; 202: 767-775. (Pubitemid 44752526)
116. Segura L, Rojas M, Pelaez N, et al. Disseminated histoplasmosis and human immunodef ciency virus type 1 infection: risk factors in Guatemala. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 25: 343-344. (Pubitemid 27364745)
117. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Histoplasmosis: protecting workers at risk. Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; 1997 Sep. Report No.: DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 97-146.
118. Posadas A. A new case of fungal mycosis with psorospermiasis [in Spanish]. Círculo Médico Argentino 1892; 52: 1-11.
119. Saubolle MA, McKellar PP, Sussland D. Epidemiologic, clinical, and diagnostic aspects of coccidioidomycosis. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45: 26-30. (Pubitemid 46106402)
120. Barker BM, Jewell KA, Kroken S, Orbach MJ. The population biology of coccidioides: epidemiologic implications for disease outbreaks. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1111: 147-163. (Pubitemid 47573036)
121. Fisher MC, Koenig GL, White TJ, et al. Biogeographic range expansion into South America by Coccidioides immitis mirrors New World patterns of human migration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98: 4558-4562. (Pubitemid 32295015)
122. Laniado-Laborin R. Expanding understanding of epidemiology of coccidioidomycosis in the Western hemisphere. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1111: 19-34. (Pubitemid 47573008)
123. Hector RF, Laniado-Laborin R. Coccidioidomycosis-a fungal disease of the Americas. PLoS Med 2005; 2: 2.
124. Cordeiro RA, Brilhante RS, Rocha MF, et al. Twelve years of coccidioidomycosis in Ceara State, Northeast Brazil: epidemiologic and diagnostic aspects. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 66: 65-72.
125. Pappagianis D. Epidemiology of coccidioidomycosis. Curr Top Med Mycol 1988; 2: 199-238.
126. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Increase in coc-cidioidomycosis-Arizona, 1998-2001. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2003; 52: 109-112.
127. Fisher MC, Koenig GL, White TJ, Taylor JW. Pathogenic clones versus environmentally driven population increase: analysis of an epidemic of the human fungal pathogen Coccidioides immitis. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 807-813. (Pubitemid 30082685)
128. Schneider E, Hajjeh RA, Spiegel RA, et al. A coccidioidomycosis outbreak following the Northridge, Calif, earthquake. JAMA 1997; 277: 904-908. (Pubitemid 27123951)
129. Cairns L, Blythe D, Kao A, et al. Outbreak of coccidioidomycosis in Washington state residents returning from Mexico. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 61-64. (Pubitemid 30067063)
130. Wanke B, Lazera MS, Monteiro PCF, et al. Investigation of an outbreak of endemic coccidioidomycosis in Brazil's northeastern state of Piaui with a review of the occurrence and distribution of Coccidioides immi-tis in three other Brazilian states. Mycopathologia 1999; 148: 57-67. (Pubitemid 32044911)
131. Ampel NM, Wieden MA, Galgiani JN. Coccidioidomycosis: clinical update. Rev Infect Dis 1989; 11: 897-911.
132. Drutz DJ, Huppert M, Sun SH, McGuire WL. Human sex hormones stimulate the growth and maturation of Coccidioides immitis. Infect Immun 1981; 32: 897-907. (Pubitemid 11101728)
133. Smith CE, Beard RR, Whiting EG, Rosenberger HG. Varieties of coc-cidioidal infection in relation to the epidemiology and control of the diseases. Am J Public Health Nations Health 1946; 36: 1394-1402.
134. Louie L, Ng S, Hajjeh R, et al. Inf uence of host genetics on the severity of coccidioidomycosis. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 672-680. (Pubitemid 29493769)
135. Crum NF, Lederman ER, Stafford CM, Parrish JS, Wallace MR. Coccidioidomycosis: a descriptive survey of a reemerging disease. Clinical characteristics and current controversies. Medicine (Baltimore) 2004; 83: 149-175. (Pubitemid 38649945)
136. Parish JM, Blair JE. Coccidioidomycosis. Mayo Clin Proc 2008; 83: 343-348.
137. Blair JE. Coccidioidal meningitis: update on epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2009; 11: 289-295.
138. Chiller TM, Galgiani JN, Stevens DA. Coccidioidomycosis. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2003; 17: 41-57. (Pubitemid 36514570)
139. Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV-1. Ann NY Acad Sci 2007; 1111: 336-342. (Pubitemid 47573030)
140. Ampel NM. Coccidioidomycosis in persons infected with HIV type 1. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1174-1178. (Pubitemid 41429482)
141. Baptista Rosas RC, Riquelme M. The epidemiology of coccid-ioidomycosis in Mexico [in Spanish]. Rev Iberoam Micol 2007; 24: 100-105.
142. Laniado-Laborin R, Cardenas Moreno RP, Alvarez Cerro M. Tijuana: endemic zone of Coccidioides immitis infection [in Spanish]. Salud Publica Mex 1991; 33: 235-259.
143. Gonzalez-Benavides J. The panorama of coccidioidomycosis in Nuevo Leon from 1978 to 1988 [in Spanish]. Gac Med Mex 1991; 127: 427-432.
144. Mondragon-Gonzalez R, Mendez-Tovar LJ, Bernal-Vazquez E, et al. Detection of Coccidioides immitis infection in Coahuila, Mexico [in Spanish]. Rev Argent Microbiol 2005; 37: 135-138. (Pubitemid 43181453)
145. Calderon-Garciduenas AL, Pina-Osuna K, Leal-Moreno AM, Lopez-Cardenas A, Cerda-Flores RM. Clinicopathologic characteristics and distribution of number of autopsies of patient death due to coccidioidomycosis at a referral hospital in northeastern Mexico [in Spanish]. Gac Med Mex 2004; 140: 399-404. (Pubitemid 39158956)
146. Lacaz CdS, Salebian A, Carvalho Melhem MDS, et al. Immune-allergic survey with spherulin in a general hospital from Sao Paulo, Brasil. Sabouraudia 1978; 16: 91. (Pubitemid 8386614)
147. Lacaz CdS, Salebian A, Carvalho Melhem MS, et al. Immuno-allergy survey using spherulin in a Sao Paulo general hospital [in Portuguese]. Rev Assoc Med Bras 1978; 24: 403-404.
148. Fredrich BE. A skin test survey of valley fever in Tijuana, Mexico. Soc Sci Med 1989; 29: 1217-1227. (Pubitemid 19269495)
149. Padua Y, Gabriel A, Martinez-Ordaz VA, Velasco-Rodreguez VM, Lazo-Saenz JG, Cicero R. Prevalence of skin reactivity to coccidioi-din and associated risks factors in subjects living in a northern city of Mexico. Arch Med Res 1999; 30: 388-392.
150. Rios-Fabra A, Moreno AR, Isturiz RE. Fungal infection in Latin American countries. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1994; 8: 129-154. (Pubitemid 24114820)
151. Eulalio KD, de Macedo RL, Cavalcanti MA, et al. Coccidioides immitis isolated from armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctu s) in the state of Piaui, northeast Brazil. Mycopathologia 2001; 149: 57-61. (Pubitemid 32193954)
152. Vianna H, Passos HV, Sant'ana AV. Coccidioidomycosis. Report of the 1st case in a native of Brazil [in Portuguese]. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo 1979; 21: 51-55. (Pubitemid 9155910)
153. Campins H. Coccidioidomycosis in South America. A review of its epidemiology and geographic distribution. Mycopathol Mycol Appl 1970; 41: 25-34.
154. Bava AJ, Negroni R, Arechavala AI, Robles AM, Curzio D, Di Gioia P. Study of eight cases of coccidioidomycosis in a hospital of Buenos Aires [in Spanish]. Rev Iberoam Micol 1999; 16: 111-113. (Pubitemid 29325155)
155. Rios-Olivares EO. 1st human case of coccidioidomycosis in Nicaragua [in Spanish]. Rev Latinoam Microbiol 1979; 21: 215-218. (Pubitemid 11229418)
156. Robledo M, Restrepo A, Restrepo S, Gutierrez O, Gutierrez F. Epidemiologic survey on coccidioidomycosis in arid areas of Columbia [in Spanish]. Ant Med 1968; 18: 505-552.
157. Velez A, Robledo A, Tobon C, et al. Pulmonary coccidioidomycosis. Report of an indigenous case [in Spanish]. Medicina UPB 1997; 16: 97-108.
158. Cuellar-Rodriguez J, Avery RK, Lard M, et al. Histoplasmosis in solid organ transplant recipients: 10 years of experience at a large transplant center in an endemic area. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: 710-716.
159. Torres HA, Rivero GA, Kontoyiannis DP. Endemic mycoses in a cancer hospital. Medicine (Baltimore) 2002; 81: 201-212. (Pubitemid 34507207)
160. Ferreira MS, Borges AS. Histoplasmosis [in Portuguese]. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2009; 42: 192-198.
161. Wanke B, Lazera MS, Nucci M. Fungal infections in the immuno-compromised host. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2000; 95: 153-158.
162. Colombo AL. Paracoccidioidomycosis: advances and unmet needs after 100 years after its initial description by Lutz. J Venom Animals Tox Trop Dis 2008; 14: 387-392.
163. Colombo AL, Queiroz-Telles F. Paracoccidioidomycosis. In: Kauffman C, Mandell G, eds. Atlas of Fungal Infections. 2nd edn. Philadephia: Springer, 2007.
164. Guimaraes AJ, Nosanchuk JD, Zancope-Oliveira RM. Diagnosis of histoplasmosis. Braz J Microbiol 2006; 37: 1-13. (Pubitemid 43794001)