Transparency in three dimensions

University of Illinois Law Review

Volumn 2011, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 1339-1358

  Schauer, Frederick ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

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EID: 80053523610     PISSN: 02769948     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. John P. Frank, Hugo L. Black: Free Speech and the Declaration of Independence, 1977 U. III. L.F. 577.
2. Grant Gilmore, Some Reflections on Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., 2 green Bag 2d 379 (1999).
3. Nathaniel L. Nathanson, The Philosophy of Mr. Justice Brandeis and Civil Liberties Today, 1979 U. III. L.F. 261.
4. Philip B. Kurland, Justice Robert H. Jackson-Impact on Civil Rights and Civil Liberties, 1977 U. ILL. L.F. 551.
5. William T. Coleman, Jr., Mr. Justice Felix Frankfurter: Civil Libertarian As Lawyer and As Justice: Extent to Which Judicial Responsibilities Affected His Pre-Court Convictions, in Six justices on Civil Rights 85 (Ronald D. Rotunda ed., 1983).
6. Vern Countryman, Justice Douglas and Freedom of Expression, 1978 U. ILL. L.F. 301.
7. Mark V. Tushnet, The Jurisprudence of Thurgood Marshall, 1996 U. ILL. L. Rev. 1129.
8. Abner J. Mikva, Justice Brennan and the Political Process: Assessing the Legacy of Baker v. Carr, 1995 U. III. L. Rev. 683.
9. "Fortunate" especially because the tradition, as exemplified by six of the eight previously cited Baum Lectures, has been marked by the practice of former law clerks writing admiringly about the Justices for whom they clerked. Not having been a law clerk, I am an unable to perform in such a role.
10. Among many prominent recent writings
11. see generally archon Fung et al., Full disclosure: The Perils and Promise of Transparency (2007)
12. Open Government: Collaboration, Transparency, and Participation in Practice (Daniel Lathrop & Laurel Ruma eds., 2010)
13. Cary Coglianese et al., Transparency and Public Participation in the Federal Rulemaking Process: Recommendations for the New Administration, 77 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 924 (2009)
14. Cynthia Hstlund, Just the Facts: The Case for Workplace Transparency, 63 stan. L. REV. 351 (2011)
15. Kenneth Feinberg, Transparency and Civil Justice: The Internal and External Value of Sunlight, 58 DePaul L. Rev. 473 (2009)
16. Mark Fenster, Designing Transparency: The 9/11 Commission and Institutional Form, 65 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 1239 (2008)
17. Mark Fenster, Seeing the State: Transparency As Metaphor, 62 Admin. L. Rev. 671 (2010)
18. Eugene R. Fidell, Transparency, 2009,61 Hastings L.J. 457 (2009)
19. William Funk, Public Participation and Transparency in Administrative Law-Three Examples /4s an Object Lesson, 61 admin. L. Rev. 171 (2009)
20. Jacob E. Gersen & Anne Joseph O'Connell, Hiding in Plain Sight? Timing and Transparency in the Administrative State, 76 U. chi. L. Rev. 1157 (2009
21. Seth F. Kreimer, The Freedom of Information Act and the Ecology of Transparency, 10 U. Pa. J. const. L. 1011 (2008)
22. Lynn M. LoPucki, Court-System Transparency, 94 iowa L. Rev. 481 (2009
23. Michael R. Siebecker, Trust & Transparency: Promoting Efficient Corporate Disclosure Through Fiduciary-Based Discourse, 87 Wash. U. L. Rev. 115 (2009).
24. Lawrence B. Solum, Legal Theory Lexicon: Transparency, legal theory BlOG (Oct. 3,2010, 11:00 AM), http://lsolum.typepad.com/legaltheory/2010/10/legal- theory-lexicon-transparency.html.
25. Presidential Memorandum on Freedom of Information Act, 74 Fed. Reg. 4683 (Jan. 26, 2009)
26. Presidential Memorandum on Transparency and Government, 74 Fed. Reg. 4685 (Jan. 26, 2009)
27. Memorandum from Peter R. Orszag, Dir., Office of Mgmt. and Budget, to the Heads of Exec. Dep'ts and Agencies (Dec. 8, 2009), http://www.whitehouse.gov/ sites/default/files/omb/assets/memoranda-2010/ml0-06.pdf. The extent to which the Obama Administration has fulfilled this promise, however, remains a matter of continuing controversy
28. See Nat'l Security Archive, Sunshine and Shadows: The Clear Obama Message for Freedom of Information Meets Mixed Results (2010), available at http://www.gwu.edu/-nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB308/index.htm. On transparency in government generally
29. see Elizabeth Garrett et al., Constitutional Issues Raised by the Lobbying Disclosure Act, in The Lobbying Manual: A Complete Guide to Federal Lobbying Law and Practice 197 (William V. Luneburg et al., eds., 4th ed. 2009);
30. Transparency: The Key to better Governance? (Christopher Hood & David Heald eds., 2006)
31. Danielle Keats Citron, Open Code Governance, 2008 u. Chi. Legal F. 355.
32. See Diana Golobay, Fed Publishes Wave of Rules for Mortgage Origination Transparency, HousingWire (Aug. 16, 2010, 12:01 PM), http://www.housingwire.com/ 2010/08/16/fed-publishes-wave-of-rules-for-mortgage-origination-transparency.
33. A balanced analysis of the issues, showing both the benefits and costs of transparency in corporate governance, is Benjamin E. Hermalin & Michael S. Weisbach, Transparency and Corporate Governance (Univ. of Cal. & Nat'l Bureau of Econ. Research, Working Paper No. W12875, 2007), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/soB/papers.cfm?abstract-id=958628.
34. See, e.g., L. Gordon Crovitz, Op.-Ed., Transparency is More Powerful Than Regulation, Wall St. J., Mar. 30,2009, at A21;
35. Richard H. Thaler & Cass R. Sunstein, Op.-Ed., Disclosure is the Best Kind of Credit Regulation, Wall St. J., Aug. 13,2008, at A17.
36. See LoPucki, supra note 10;
37. see also Symposium, Tradeoffs of Candor: Does Judicial Transparency Erode Legitimacy?, 64 N.Y.U. Ann. Surv. Am. L. 443 (2009).
38. See generally John R. Ackermann, Toward Open Source Hardware, 34 U. dayton L. Rev. 183 (2009);
39. Katie Fortney, Ending Copyright Claims in State Primary Legal Materials: Toward an Open Source Legal System, 102 L. LlBR. J. 59 (2010);
40. Michael J. Madison et al., Constructing Commons in the Cultural Environment, 95 cornell L. Rev. 657 (2010);
41. Greg r. Vetter, Open Source Licensing and Scattering Opportunism in Software Standards, 48 b.c. L. rev. 225 (2007).
42. See Joseph Leghorn et al., The First Amendment and FDA Restrictions on Off-Label Uses: The Call for a New Approach, 63 Food & Drug L.J. 391,405-406 (2008).
43. Richard S. Saver, At the End of the Clinical Trial: Does Access to Investigational Technology End As Well?, 31 W. New Eng. L. Rev. 411,447(2009).
44. The conventional disclosure approach to securities regulation is described and challenged in Susanna Kim Ripken, The Dangers and Drawbacks of the Disclosure Antidote: Toward a More Substantive Approach to Securities Regulation, 58 BAYLOR L. Rev. 139,151 (2006).
45. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
46. See Transparency int'l, http://www.transparency.org(last visited May 16,2011).
47. See Open society found., http://www.soros.org (last visited May 16,2011).
48. See, e.g., Article 19, Changing the Climate for Freedom of Expression and Freedom of Information (2009),http://www.articlel9.org/pdfs/publications/ changing-the-climate-for-freedom-of-expression-and-freedom-of-information.pdf;
49. Article 19, The London Declaration for Transparency, the Free Flow of Information and Development (2010) http://www.right2info-mdgs.org/wp-content/ uploads/London-Declaration.pdf.
50. Indeed, skeptical analyses of the supposed virtues of transparency have been emerging more frequently
51. See, e.g., Omri Ben-Shahar & Carl E. Schneider, The Failure of Mandated Disclosure, 159 U. Pa. L. Rev. 647 (2011)
52. Amitai Etzioni, Is Transparency the Best Disinfectant?, 18 J. Pol. Phil. 389 (2010)
53. Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, Does Disclosure Matter? (NYU Law and Economics, Research Paper No. 10-54,2010), available at http://papers.ssrn.com/ sol3/papers.cfm?abstract-id=1713860.
54. The classic and still highly valuable treatment of secrets is Sissela Bok, secrets: On the Ethics of Concealment and Revelation (1982). A more recent analysis, importantly distinguishing between known and unknown secrecy, is David E. Pozen, Deep Secrecy, 62 Stan. L. Rev. 257 (2010).
55. See Mclntyre v. Ohio Elections Comm'n, 514 U.S. 334 (1995) (protecting the right to engage in anonymous political speech)
56. Talley v. California, 362 U.S. 60 (1960) (same)
57. see also Nat'l Ass'n for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449 (1958) (finding First Amendment right to nondisclosure of organization membership lists)
58. Chesa Boudin, Note, Publius and the Petition: Doe v. Reed and the History of Anonymous Speech, 120 YALE L.J. 2140 (2011).
59. See Branzburg v. Hayes, 408 U.S. 665 (1972) (rejecting the claim that reporter's privilege was guaranteed by First Amendment's Press Clause)
60. In re Grand Jury Subpoena, 397 F.3d 964
61. Many states have enacted such a privilege by statute
62. see, for example, Ark. Code Ann. 8 16-85-510 (2005)
63. neb. Rev. Stat. § 120-144 (2007), and the Free Flow of Information Act of 2007, H.R. 2102,110th Cong. § 2 (2007), is, at the time of this writing, pending in Congress, albeit with a decreasing likelihood of ultimate passage.
64. See supra note 10 for a sample of recent writings.
65. 2 The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary 3383 (1971).
66. See Isaiah Berlin, Two Concepts of Liberty, in Four Essays on Liberty 118 (1969).
67. An important analysis and response to Berlin is in Lawrence Crocker, Positive Liberty: An Essay in Normative Political Philosophy (1980).
68. On positive and negative rights, see, for example, Larry A. Alexander, Constitutionalism, in The Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory 248, 255 (Martin P. Golding & William A. Edmundson eds., 2005)
69. Sotirios A. Barber, Welfare and the Instrumental Constitution, 42 Am. j. juris. 159 (1997)
70. Frank i. Michelman, Foreword: On Protecting the Poor Through the Fourteenth Amendment, 83 Harv. L. Rev. 7 (1969)
71. Albie Sachs, Enforcement of Social and Economic Rights, 22 Am. U. int'l L. rev. 673 (2007)
72. Ellen Wiles, Aspirational Principles or Enforceable Rights?: The Future for Socio-Economic Rights in National Law, 22 Am. U. int'l L. Rev. 35 (2006).
73. The longstanding U.S. resistance to recognizing positive rights in constitutional law is exemplified in, for example, DeShaney v. Winnebago Cnty. Dep't. of Soc. Servs., 489 U.S. 189 (1989);
74. San Antonio Indep. Sch. Dist. v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).
75. On open meeting laws generally, see the comprehensive and balanced treatment in Nicholas Johnson, Open Meetings and Closed Minds: Another Road to the Mountaintop, 53 drake L. Rev. 11 (2004)
76. Also useful are, for example, John F. O'Connor & Michael J. Baratz, Some Assembly Required: The Application of State Open Meeting Laws to Email Correspondence, 12 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 719 (2004)
77. Daxton R. "Chip" Stewart, Let the Sunshine in, or Else: An Examination of the "Teeth" of State and Federal Open Meetings and Open Records Laws, 15 comm. L. & pol'y 265 (2010). The issue is not new.
78. See Note, Open Meeting Statutes: The Press Fights for the "Right to Know," 75 Harv. L. Rev. 1199 (1962). And it is now pretty well settled that there is no general constitutional affirmative right of access to government meetings and proceedings, whether for the press or for the public at large
79. See Houchins v. KQED, Inc., 438 U.S. 1 (1978)
80. Pell v. Procunier, 417 U.S. 817 (1974)
81. Saxbe v. Wash. Post Co., 417 U.S. 843 (1974)
82. cf. Madison Joint Sch. Dist. No. 8 v. Wis. Emp't Relations Comm'n, 429 U.S. 167 (1976). For an argument to the contrary
83. see Adam M. Samaha, Government Secrets, Constitutional Law, and Platforms for Judicial Intervention, 53 UCLA L. Rev. 909 (2006).
84. Richmond Newspapers Inc. V. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555 (1980) For subsequent elaboration.
85. see Press-Enter. Co. v. Superior Court, 478 U.S. 1 (1986)
86. Press-Enter. Co. v. Superior Court, 464 U.S. 501 (1984);
87. Seattle Times Co. v. Rhinehart, 467 U.S. 20 (1984)
88. Globe Newspaper Co. v. Superior Court, 457 U.S. 596(1982).
89. Freedom of Information Act of 1986,5 U.S.C. § 552 (2006).
90. see State FOI Laws, Nat'l Freedom Info. Coalition, http://www.nfoic.org/ state-foi-laws (last visited May 16,2011).
91. See Classified Information Procedures Act, Pub. l. No. 96-456, § 6(c), 94 Stat. 2025, 2027 (1980)
92. Thomas Grexa, Title VII Tenure Litigation in the Academy and Academic Freedom-A Current Appraisal, 96 Dick. L. Rev. 11,32 N.168 (1991);
93. Jonathan H. Marks, 9/11 + 3/11 + 7/7 = ?: What Counts in Counterterrorism, 37 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 559,617 N.255 (2006).
94. See, e.g., Stephen Schaeffer, Comment, Sunshine in Cyberspace: Electronic Deliberation and the Reach of Open Meeting Laws, 48 St. LOUIS U. L.J. 755 (2004)
95. Timothy P. Whelan, New York's Open Meetings Law: Revision of the Political Caucus Exemption and Its Implications for Local Government, 60 Brook. L. Rev. 1483 (1995).
96. See, e.g., U.S. Dep't of Just., Freedom of Information Act Reference Guide (2010), available at .
97. Of course there are important issues about who is included and who is excluded under any system of partial access
98. Nation Magazine v. U.S. Dep't of Def., 762 F. Supp. 1558 (S.D.N.Y. 1991) (dismissing as moot a challenge to the Department of Defense's procedures and criteria for determining which journalists shall be members of wartime "press pools")
99. Frederick Schauer, Parsing the Pentagon Papers (May 1991) (unpublished research paper) (on file with the Joan Shorenstein Center, Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government) (commenting on the foregoing), but such issues are not my principal concern here.
100. Indeed, using the words "transparent" (or " transparency") and "accountable" (or "accountability") in tandem is ubiquitous
101. See, e.g., Blakely v. Washington, 542 U.S. 296,316 (2004).
102. And the ubiquitous "information is power" derives from Francis Bacon's "knowledge is power," the common translation of nam et ipsa scientia potestas est
103. John Bartlett, Familiar Quotations 111 (Christopher Morley & Louella D. Everett eds., 12th ed. 1950) (quoting Francis Bacon, Haeresibus, in meditaciones Sacrae (1597)).
104. The use of "almost" in the text is deliberate, reflecting a longstanding debate over what about blackmail-the threat to disclose accurate information under circumstances in which the disclosure itself would otherwise be entirely lawful-justifies its criminalization at all
105. Among the more prominent entries in the debate are Ronald H. Coase, Lecture, Blackmail, 74 Va. L. Rev. 655 (1988)
106. Richard A. Epstein, Blackmail, inc., 50 U. CHI. L. REV. 553 (1983)
107. Henry E. Smith, The Harm in Blackmail, 92 Nw. U. L. Rev. 861 (1998);
108. Symposium, Blackmail and Other Forms of Arm-Twisting, 141 U. Pa. L. Rev. 1567 (1993)
109. A valuable recent recapitulation and analysis is Ken Levy, The Solution to the Real Blackmail Paradox: The Common Link Between Blackmail and Other Criminal Threats, 39 CONN. L. REV. 1051 (2007).
110. See Allen Ferrell, The Case for Mandatory Disclosure in Securities Regulation Around the World, 2 brook. J. Corp. Fin. & com. L. 81 (2007)
111. Edward Rock, Securities Regulation As Lobster Trap: A Credible Commitment Theory of Mandatory Disclosure, 23 cardozo L. Rev. 675 (2002)
112. Gary F. Goldring, Note, Mandatory Disclosure of Corporate Projections and the Goals of Securities Regulation, 81 Colum. L. Rev. 1525 (1981)
113. For a skeptical view of the supposed advantages of disclosure in producing substantively desirable behavior
114. Ripken, supra note 19
115. see Ripken, supra note 19. Different forms of skepticism are also found in Carol J. Simon, The Effect of the 1933 Securities Act on Investor Information and the Performance of New Issues, 79 Am. Econ. Rev. 295 (1989).
116. See Clark C. Havighurst, Regulations of Health Facilities and Services by "Certificate of Need," 59 Va. L. Rev. 1143,1163 n.76 (1973)
117. Michael B. Rothberg et al., Choosing the Best Hospital: The Limitations of Public Quality Reporting, 27 health AFF. 1680 (2008)
118. Clayton Christensen & Jason Hwang, What Obama's Health Care Team Can Learn from Massachusetts, Harv. Bus. Rev. Blog (Jan. 22, 2009, 5:23 PM), http://blogs.hbr.org/hbr/on-innovation/2009/01/what-obamas-health-care-team-c. html.
119. See Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1092(f) (2006)
120. Oren R. Griffin, Constructing a Legal and Managerial Paradigm Applicable to the Modern-Day Safety and Security Challenge at Colleges and Universities, 54 ST. LOUIS U. L.J. 241 (2009).
121. See generally Ginger Zhe Jin & Phillip Leslie, The Effect of Information on Product Quality: Evidence from Restaurant Hygiene Grade Cards, 118 Q. J. econ. 409 (2003).
122. Thaler & Sunstein, supra note 15.
123. Crovitz, supra note 15.
124. See Ripken, supra note 19.
125. See supra note 12.
126. Indeed, the view that transparency is the best prevention for corruption is the guiding principle of Transparency International, supra note 21, and the impetus for Transparency International's widely used Corruption Perceptions Index
127. Indeed, the view that transparency is the best prevention for corruption is the guiding principle of Transparency International, supra note 21, and the impetus for Transparency International's widely used Corruption Perceptions Index. See Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results, transparency int'l, http://www.transparency.org/policy-research/surveys-indices/cpi/2010/results (last visited May 16,2011).
128. "Publicity is justly commended as a remedy for social and industrial diseases. Sunlight is said to be the best of disinfectants; electric light the most efficient policeman." Louis D. Brandeis, Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It 92 (1914).
129. For the contrast between epistemic and alternative justifications for democracy
130. see generally William N. Nelson, On Justifying Democracy (1980).
131. On Cameras in Supreme Court, Souter Says, 'Over My Dead Body,' N.Y. times, Mar. 30, 1996, at 24 (quoting Justice Souter). On the issue generally, including the diverse views of the other Justices
132. see Robert L. Brown, Just a Matter of Time? Video Cameras at the United States Supreme Court and the State Supreme Courts, 9 J. app. prac. & process 1 (2007).
133. Against the view that populism is just democracy when it produces outcomes with which some commentator using the term disagrees
134. see john lukacs, democracy and populism: Fear and Hatred 5-8 (2005).
135. See Allison Stanger, One Nation Under Contract: The Outsourcing of American Power and the Future of Foreign Policy 178-79 (2009);
136. Richard Dolinar & S. Luke Leininger, Pay for Performance or Compliance? A Second Opinion on Medicare Reimbursement, 3 Ind. Health L. Rev. 397,418-420 (2006).
137. See Frederick Schauer, Free Speech: A Philosophical Enquiry 15-17 (1982
138. see also Alvin I. Goldman & James C. Cox, Speech, Truth, and the Free Market for Ideas, 2 legal theory 1, 2-3 (1996);
139. Stanley Ingber, The Marketplace of Ideas: A Legitimizing Myth, 1984 Duke l.J. 1,2-3;
140. William P. Marshall, In Defense of the Search for Truth As a First Amendment Justification, 30 Ga. l. Rev. 1,1 (1995).
141. "[W]ho ever knew Truth put to the worse in a free and open encounter?" milton's Areopagitica: A Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing 45 (H.B. Cotterill ed., Mac- millan 1959) (1644).
142. John Stuart Mill, On Liberty 18-24 (David Spitz ed., W.W. Norton & Co. Inc. 1975) (1859).
143. "[T]he best test of truth is the power of [a proposition] to get itself accepted in the competition of the market " Abrams v. United States, 250 U.S. 616, 630 (1919) (Holmes, J., dissenting).
144. see also Vincent Blasi, Holmes and the Marketplace of Ideas, 2004 SUP. CT. REV. 1,1-2,4.
145. Open source is a development method for software that harnesses the power of distributed peer review and transparency of process. The promise of open source is better quality, higher reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in
146. Mission, open Source Initiative, http://www.opensource.org (last visited May 16,2011).
147. See Goldman & Cox, supra note 57, at 29-32;
148. Ingber, supra note 57, at 16-49
149. Frederick Schauer, Facts and the First Amendment, 57 UCLA L. rev. 897, 908-912 (2010);
150. Frederick Schauer, Is It Better to Be Safe Than Sorry?: Free Speech and the Precautionary Principle, 36 pepp. L. Rev. 301, 308-312 (2009).
151. On the First Amendment and factual and scientific propositions generally, see Schauer, Facts and the First Amendment, supra note 62.
152. See supra note 54.
153. Or at least we should be.
154. See Owen M. Fiss, Injunctions 9 (1972);
155. Douglas Laycock, The Death of the Irreparable Injury Rule 8-11 (1991).
156. See, e.g., Metro. Taxicab Bd. of Trade v. New York, 615 F.3d 152,156 (2d Cir. 2010);
157. Small v. Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' Int'l Ass'n Local 200, 611 F.3d 483,489-90 (9th Cir. 2010)
158. Hanselman v. Frank, 77 Mass. App. Ct. 1104 (Mass. App. Ct. 2010).
159. Jeremy Bentham, Farming Defended, in 1 writings on the poor Laws 276, 277 (Michael Quinn ed., Oxford University Press 2001) (1796).
160. See Ass'n of Am. Physicians & Surgeons, Inc. v. Clinton, 813 F. Supp. 82 (D.D.C. 1993), rev'd 997 F.2d 898 (D.C. Cir. 1993) (addressing statutory and constitutional questions about whether the President's close advisors could be compelled by law to hood their deliberations in public). On the constitutional question
161. see Pub. Citizen v. U.S. Dep't of Justice, 491 U.S. 440,482-89 (1989) (Kennedy, J., concurring).
162. Jay S. Bybee, Advising the President: Separation of Powers and the Federal Advisory Commission Act, 104 Yale L.J. 51 (1994).
163. Why this is so is again a function of the question about the relationship between awareness and truth (or soundness). If the truth or soundness of a proposition has considerable explanatory power in determining which propositions will be accepted and which rejected by some population, then increasing awareness of true propositions and accurately described facts-the principal theoretical goal of a regime of transparency-will increase the degree of acceptance of those propositions and thus increase knowledge. But if, as seems increasingly and disturbingly apparent in many areas of public life, truth has but a limited causal connection with acceptance, then transparency may at times.
164. 15 William Blackstone, Commentaries *434. For recent and relevant analysis.
165. see Alexander Volokh, n Guilty Men, 146 U. Pa. L. Rev. 173 (1997).
166. Howard Raiffa, Decision Analysis: Introductory Lectures on Choices Under Uncertainty (1968);
167. see also R. Duncan Luce & Howard Raiffa, Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey (1957).
168. That is, there may be advantages to having the public learn about the Supreme Court, what it does and how it does it, even if this learning comes at the cost of a larger number of erroneous decisions.
169. Some of these typically diverse topics are usefully brought together in James Boyle, Shamans, Software, and Spleens: Law and the Construction of the Information Society (1996).
170. Lee C. Bollinger, Baum Lecture 2010, 2011 U. ILL. L. REV. 1011;
171. Geoffrey R. Stone, Baum Lecture 2011,2012 U. ILL L. REV. (forthcoming 2012).
172. For my own preliminary observations on the phenomenon
173. see generally Frederick Schauer, Hohfeld's First Amendment, 76 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 914 (2008). Earlier, the way in which the values underlying the First Amendment might argue for affirmative policies in addition to negative rights was explored
174. Steven H. shiffrin, dissent, injustice, and the meanings of america (1999).
175. E.g., Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555,580 (1980).
176. And Mill recognized the point, even if those who follow and quote him rarely do.
177. And Mill recognized the point, even if those who follow and quote him rarely do. See Mill, supra note 59, at 42-43 (urging that even where views are taken as settled, and when no challenges to those views exist, various "contrivances" by way of challenge should be employed in order to ensure that "the intelligent and living apprehension of a truth" is not impeded).
178. Vincent Blasi, The Checking Value in First Amendment Theory, 1977
179. Am. B. found. res. J. 521. Much of k.r. Popper, 1 The Open Society and Its Enemies (5th ed. 1966) similarly turns on relative importance of preventing bad governments from doing bad things, even at the expense of making it more difficult for good governments to do good things
180. Popper also says that the "traditional question of political theory, 'Who should rule?,'" should be "replaced by a completely different question such as, 'How can we organize our political institutions so that bad or incompetent rulers⋯ cannot do too much damage?
181. Karl R. Popper, Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge 25 (3d ed. 1969)