Appropriate antibiotic dosage levels in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock

Current Infectious Disease Reports

Volumn 13, Issue 5, 2011, Pages 406-415

  Taccone, Fabio Silvio ^a   Hites, Maya ^a   Beumier, Marjorie ^a   Scolletta, Sabino ^a   Jacobs, Frédérique ^a  

^a ERASME HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

Author keywords

lactams; Aminoglycosides; Antibacterial; Antibiotics; Critically illness; Dosage; Glycopeptides; Intensive care unit; Pharmacodynamic; Pharmacokinetics; Regimen; Sepsis

Indexed keywords

AMIKACIN; AMINOGLYCOSIDE; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; BETA LACTAM; CARBAPENEM; CEFEPIME; CEFTAZIDIME; CEPHALOSPORIN; GENTAMICIN; LINEZOLID; MEROPENEM; MONOBACTAM; PENICILLIN G; PIPERACILLIN; PIPERACILLIN PLUS TAZOBACTAM; POLYPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; TEICOPLANIN; TIGECYCLINE; TOBRAMYCIN; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; AREA UNDER THE CURVE; ARTICLE; BACTEREMIA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; CONTINUOUS INFUSION; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; DISEASE SEVERITY; DOSE CALCULATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISTRIBUTION; DRUG DOSE INCREASE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ELIMINATION; DRUG EXCRETION; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG MONITORING; DRUG OVERDOSE; DRUG UNDERDOSE; GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTION; GRAM POSITIVE INFECTION; HOSPITAL ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; HOSPITAL INFECTION; HUMAN; LOADING DRUG DOSE; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MINIMUM INHIBITORY CONCENTRATION; NEPHROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OSTEOMYELITIS; PRIMARY HEALTH CARE; RECOMMENDED DRUG DOSE; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK; TREATMENT PLANNING; VENTILATOR ASSOCIATED PNEUMONIA;

EID: 80052590359     PISSN: 15233847     EISSN: 15343146     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11908-011-0203-y     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. DC Angus WT Linde-Zwirble J Lidicker, et al. 2001 Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: Analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care Crit Care Med 29 1303 1310 11445675 10.1097/00003246-200107000- 00002 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3Mvgs12gtg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 32641789)
2. GS Martin DM Mannino S Eaton, et al. 2003 The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000 N Engl J Med 348 1546 1554 12700374 10.1056/NEJMoa022139 (Pubitemid 36437931)
3. JL Vincent Y Sakr C Sprung, et al. 2006 Sepsis in European intensive care units: results of the SOAP study Crit Care Med 34 344 353 16424713 10.1097/01.CCM.0000194725.48928.3A (Pubitemid 43145611)
4. P Dellinger M Levy J Carlet, et al. 2008 Surviving sepsis campaign: International guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock Crit Care Med 36 296 327 18158437 10.1097/01.CCM.0000298158.12101.41
5. MY Lin RA Weinstein B Hota 2008 Delay of active antimicrobial therapy and mortality among patients with bacteremia: impact of severe neutropenia Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52 3188 3194 18625778 10.1128/AAC.01553-07 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtF2gtrbL
6. VP Chaubey JD Pitout B Dalton, et al. 2010 Clinical outcome of empiric antimicrobial therapy of bacteremia due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae BMC Res Notes 3 116 20423493 10.1186/1756-0500-3-116
7. A Kumar D Roberts 2006 Kenneth, et al.: Duration of hypotension before administration of effective antimicrobial therapy is the critical determinant Crit Care Med 34 1589 1596 16625125 10.1097/01.CCM.0000217961.75225.E9 (Pubitemid 43810035)
8. J Garnacho-Montero C Ortiz I Herrera, et al. 2008 Mortality and morbidity attributable to inadequate empirical therapy in patients admitted to the ICU with sepsis: a matched cohort study J Antimicrob Chemother 61 436 441 18056733 10.1093/jac/dkm460 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXptlGksQ%3D%3D This study showed that inadequate antimicrobial therapy at admission to the ICU with sepsis is associated with excess mortality and increased length of stay
9. M Kollef G Sherman S Ward, et al. 1999 Inadequate Antimicrobial treatment of infections: A risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients Chest 115 463 474
10. S Harbarth J Garbino J Pugin, et al. 2003 Inappropriate initial antimicrobial therapy and its effect on survival in a clinical trial of immunomodulating therapy for severe sepsis Am J Med 31 390 394
11. MH Khollef 2000 Inadequate antimicrobial treatment: an important determinant of outcome for hospitalized patients Clin Infect Dis 31 Suppl 4 S131 S138 10.1086/314079 (Pubitemid 32291120)
12. CI Kang SH Kim HB Kim, et al. 2003 Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia: risk factors for mortality and influence of delayed receipt of effective antimicrobial therapy on clinical outcome Clin Infect Dis 37 745 751 12955633 10.1086/377200 (Pubitemid 37153651)
13. D Yahav M Paul A Fraser, et al. 2007 Efficacy and safety of cefepime: a systematic review and meta-analysis Lancet Infect Dis 7 338 348 17448937 10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70109-3 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXlslWgt7k%3D (Pubitemid 46591956)
14. AM Reese CR Frei DS Burgess 2005 Pharmacodynamics of intermittent and continuous infusion piperacillin/tazobactam and cefepime against extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing organisms Int J Antimicrob Agents 26 114 119 16029947 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.06.004 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD2MXmvVGjtb4%3D (Pubitemid 41021962)
15. SV Bhat AY Peleg TP Lodise Jr, et al. 2007 Failure of current cefepime breakpoints to predict clinical outcomes of bacteremia caused by gram-negative organisms Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 4390 4395 17938179 10.1128/AAC.01487-06 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhsVWisbrJ (Pubitemid 350209894)
16. VH Tam EA Gamez JS Weston, et al. 2008 Outcomes of bacteremia due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa with reduced susceptibility to piperacillin-tazobactam: implications on the appropriateness of the resistance breakpoint Clin Infect Dis 46 862 867 18279040 10.1086/528712 This study showed that in Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia due to isolates with reduced piperacillin-tazobactam susceptibility, empirical therapy with this drug was associated with increased mortality (Pubitemid 351417187)
17. DE Zaske RJ Sawchuk DN Gerding, et al. 1976 Increased dosage requirements of gentamicin in burn patients J Trauma 16 824 828 994263 10.1097/00005373- 197610000-00014 1:STN:280:DyaE2s%2Fltl2msQ%3D%3D
18. E Hassan JD Ober 1987 Predicted and measured aminoglycoside pharmacokinetic parameters in critically ill patients Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31 1855 1858 3435131 1:STN:280:DyaL1c7jt1Ontg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 17157659)
19. F Pea P Viale M Furlanut 2005 Antimicrobial therapy in critically ill patients: a review of pathophysiological conditions responsible for altered disposition and pharmacokinetic variability Clin Pharmacokinet 44 1009 1034 16176116 10.2165/00003088-200544100-00002 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtF2lu77K (Pubitemid 41356389)
20. PJ MacNamara M Gibaldi K Stoeckel 1983 Volume of distribution terms for a drug (ceftriaxone) exhibiting concentration-dependent protein binding Eur J Clin Pharmacol 25 407 412 10.1007/BF01037956 (Pubitemid 13005590)
21. A Udy R Boots S Senthuran, et al. 2010 Augmented creatinine clearance in traumatic brain injury Anesth Analg 111 1505 1510 21048095 10.1213/ANE. 0b013e3181f7107d 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsV2ns7jE This study showed that augmented creatinine clearence was common in ICU patients and may have an impact of drug elimination
22. RL Trotman JC Williamson DM Shoemaker, et al. 2005 Antibiotic dosing in critically ill adult patients receiving continuous renal replacement therapy Clin Infect Dis 41 1159 1166 16163635 10.1086/444500 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD2MXhtFKgsr7E (Pubitemid 41429480)
23. J Van Eldere 2003 Multicentre surveillance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa susceptibility patterns in nosocomial infections J Antimicrob Chemother 51 347 352 12562701 10.1093/jac/dkg102 (Pubitemid 36231155)
24. JA Roberts J Lipman 2009 Pharmacokinetic issues for antibiotics in the critically ill patients Crit Care Med 37 840 851 19237886 10.1097/CCM. 0b013e3181961bff 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXit1eru70%3D This is an extensive review of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic issues of antibiotics in ICU patients
25. S Kiem JJ Schentag 2006 Relationship of minimal inhibitory concentration and bactericidal activity to efficacy of antibiotics for treatment of ventilator-associated pneumonia Semin Respir Crit Care Med 27 51 67 16508882 10.1055/s-2006-933674 (Pubitemid 43334731)
26. A Abbo Y Carmeli S Navon-Venezia, et al. 2007 Impact of multi-drug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii on clinical outcomes Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 26 793 800 17701063 10.1007/s10096-007-0371-8 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2sngtlKksA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 47573383)
27. AF Shorr 2009 Review of studies of the impact on Gram-negative bacterial resistance on outcomes in the intensive care unit Crit Care Med 37 1463 1469 19242341 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31819ced02
28. D Andes WA Craig 1998 In vivo activities of amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate against Streptococcus pneumoniae: application to breakpoint determinations Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42 2375 2379 9736566 1:CAS:528:DyaK1cXmtVWqtr8%3D (Pubitemid 28420381)
29. JW Mouton N Punt 2001 Use of the t>MIC to choose between different dosing regimens of beta-lactam antibiotics J Antimicrob Chemother 47 500 501 11266433 10.1093/jac/47.4.500 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXjtVamu7g%3D (Pubitemid 32303426)
30. JW Mouton JG den Hollander 1994 Killing of Pseudomonas aeruginosa during continuous and intermittent infusion of ceftazidime in an vitro pharmacokinetic model Antimicrob Agents Chemother 38 931 936 8067772 1:CAS:528: DyaK2cXktVSgsr4%3D (Pubitemid 24150817)
31. B Bedenić J Vranes M Sviben, et al. 2008 Postantibiotic and post-beta-lactamase inhibitor effect of carbapenems combined with EDTA against Pseudomonas aeruginosa strains producing VIM-metallo beta-lactamases Chemotherapy 54 188 193 18560225 10.1159/000140461 (Pubitemid 351929269)
32. B Vogelman S Gudmundsson J Leggett, et al. 1988 Correlation of antimicrobial pharmacokinetic parameters with therapeutic efficacy J Infect Dis 158 831 847 3139779 10.1093/infdis/158.4.831 1:CAS:528:DyaL1MXitVE%3D
33. VH Tam PS McKinnon RL Akins, et al. 2002 Pharmacodynamics of cefepime in patients with Gram-negative infections J Antimicrob Chemother 50 425 428 12205070 10.1093/jac/dkf130 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38XmvVCqtb8%3D
34. B Vogelman WA Craig 1986 Kinetic of antimicrobial activity J Pediatr 108 835 840 3701535 10.1016/S0022-3476(86)80754-5 1:CAS:528:DyaL28XktVeisrc%3D
35. DP Nicolau CO Onyeji M Zhong, et al. 2000 Pharmacodynamic assessment of cefprozil against Streptococcus pneumoniae: implications for breakpoint determinations Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44 1291 1295 10770764 10.1128/AAC.44.5.1291-1295.2000 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXislKitrw%3D (Pubitemid 30228307)
36. PS McKinnon JA Paladino JJ Schentag 2008 Evaluation of area under the inhibitory curve (AUIC) and time above the minimum inhibitory concentration (T > MIC) as predictors of outcome for cefepime and ceftazidime in serious bacterial infections Int J Antimicrob Agents 31 345 351 18313273 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.12.009 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXjs1Kgtro%3D This study has shown for the first time the relationship between the pharmacodynamic parameter of cephalosporins (T>MIC) and outcomes in human infections
37. RD Moore CR Smith PS Lietman 1984 The association of aminoglycoside plasma levels with mortality in patients with gram-negative bacteremia J Infect Dis 149 443 448 6715900 10.1093/infdis/149.3.443 1:STN:280:DyaL2c7oslSltA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14138249)
38. RD Moore CR Smith PS Lietman 1984 Association of aminoglycoside plasma levels with therapeutic outcome in gram-negative pneumonia Am J Med 77 657 662 6385693 10.1016/0002-9343(84)90358-9 1:STN:280:DyaL2M%2FitVWiug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 14047595)
39. RD Moore PS Lietman CR Smith 1987 Clinical response to aminoglycoside therapy: importance of the ratio of peak concentration to minimal inhibitory concentration J Infect Dis 155 93 99 3540140 10.1093/infdis/155.1.93 1:STN:280:DyaL2s%2FosV2gsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 17225088)
40. AD Kashuba AN Nafziger GL Drusano JS Bertino Jr 1999 Optimizing aminoglycoside therapy for nosocomial pneumonia caused by gram-negative bacteria Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43 623 629 10049277 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhsF2hur0%3D (Pubitemid 29109529)
41. MZ Ali MB Goetz 1997 A meta-analysis of the relative efficacy and toxicity of a single daily dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides Clin Infect Dis 24 796 809 9142772 10.1093/clinids/24.5.796 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXjtlyrtLk%3D (Pubitemid 27193857)
42. TC Bailey JR Little B Littenberg, et al. 1997 A meta-analysis of extended-interval dosing versus multiple daily dosing of aminoglycosides Clin Infect Dis 24 786 795 9142771 10.1093/clinids/24.5.786 1:CAS:528: DyaK2sXjtlyrtLg%3D (Pubitemid 27193856)
43. N Petrosillo CM Drapeau M Agrafiotis, et al. 2010 Some current issues in the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics of antimicrobial in intensive care Minerva Anesthesiol 76 509 524 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3cnlsFCqtg%3D%3D
44. MJ Rybak BJ Abate SL Kang, et al. 1999 Prospective evaluation of the effect of an aminoglycoside dosing regimen on rates of observed nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43 1549 1555 10390201 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXktlCksro%3D (Pubitemid 29331226)
45. RC Moellering Jr 2006 Vancomycin: a 50-year reassessment Clin Infect Dis 42 suppl 1 S3 S4 16323117 10.1086/491708 (Pubitemid 41832059)
46. JD Knudsen K Fuursted S Raber, et al. 2000 Pharmacodynamics of glycopeptides in the mouse peritonitis model of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus infection Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44 1247 1254 10770759 10.1128/AAC.44.5.1247-1254.2000 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3cXislKisbk%3D (Pubitemid 30228302)
47. AJ Larsson KJ Walker JK Raddatz, et al. 1996 The concentration- indipendent effect of monoexponential and bioexponential decay in vancomycin concentrations on the killing of Staphylococcus aureus under aerobic and anaerobic conditions J Antimicrob Chemother 38 589 597 8937954 10.1093/jac/38.4.589 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XntFWisb0%3D (Pubitemid 26390400)
48. E Lodwin I Odenholt O Cars 1998 In vitro studies of pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin against Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis Antimicrob Agents Chemother 42 2739 2744 (Pubitemid 28462925)
49. PA Moise A Forrest SM Bhavnani, et al. 2000 Area under the inhibitory curve and a pneumonia scoring system for predicting outcomes of vancomycin therapy for respiratory infections by Staphylococcus aureus Am J Health Syst Pharm 57 Suppl 2 S4 S9 11057360
50. JH Martin R Norris M Barras, et al. 2010 Therapeutic monitoring of vancomycin in adult patients: a consensus review of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, the Infectious Diseases Society of America, and the Society Of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists Clin Biochem Rev. 31 1 21 24 20179794
51. MJ Rybak BM Lomaestro JC Rotschafer, et al. 2009 Vancomycin therapeutic guidelines: a summary of consensus recommendations from the infectious diseases Society of America, the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, and the Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists Clin Infect Dis 49 325 327 19569969 10.1086/600877 These are guidelines for the use of vancomycin in different Gram-positive infections, including those due to MRSA
52. G Sakoulas PA Moise-Broder J Schentag, et al. 2004 Relationship of MIC and bactericidal activity to efficacy of vancomycin for treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia J Clin Microbiol 42 2398 2402 15184410 10.1128/JCM.42.6.2398-2402.2004 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXlslamtLY%3D (Pubitemid 38747480)
53. PN Panday M Sturkenboom 2009 Continuous infusion of vancomycin less effective and safe than intermittent infusion, based on pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic principles Clin Infect Dis 49 1964 1965 19929398 10.1086/648506
54. SJ Vandecasteele AS De Vriese 2010 Recent changes in vancomycin use in renal failure Kidney Int 77 760 764 20182415 10.1038/ki.2010.35 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXkvVGhsbg%3D
55. PG Ambrose RC Owens Jr MJ Garvey, et al. 2002 Pharmacodynamic considerations in the treatment of moderate to severe pseudomonal infections with cefepime J Antimicrob Chemother 49 445 453 11864944 10.1093/jac/49.3.445 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD38Xit1Cktrc%3D (Pubitemid 34223665)
56. K Ikawa N Morikawa S Hayato, et al. 2007 Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiling of cefepime in plasma and peritoneal fluid of abdominal surgery patients Int J Antimicrob Agents 30 270 273 17587550 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.04.012 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXosFKqsL0%3D (Pubitemid 47126816)
57. J Lipman CD Gomersall T Gin, et al. 1999 Continuous infusion ceftazidime in intensive care: a randomized controlled trial J Antimicrob Chemother 43 309 311 11252342 10.1093/jac/43.2.309 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhsFymsLg%3D (Pubitemid 29082461)
58. J Lipman SC Wallis C Rickard 1999 Low plasma cefepime levels in critically ill septic patients: pharmacokinetic modeling indicates improved troughs with revised dosing Antimicrob Agents Chemother 43 2559 2561 10508045 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXms1Kqtro%3D (Pubitemid 29471248)
59. RJ Young J Lipman T Gin, et al. 1997 Intermittent bolus dosing of ceftazidime in critically ill patients J Antimicrob Chemother 40 269 273 9301994 10.1093/jac/40.2.269 1:CAS:528:DyaK2sXlslGkurY%3D (Pubitemid 27394022)
60. AS Benko DM Cappelletty JA Kruse, et al. 1996 Continuous infusion versus intermittent administration of ceftazidime in critically ill patients with suspected gram-negative infections Antimicrob Agents Chemother 40 691 695 8851594 1:CAS:528:DyaK28XhsVektbo%3D (Pubitemid 26071536)
61. JA Roberts CM Kirkpatrick MS Roberts, et al. 2010 First-dose and steady-state population pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of piperacillin by continuous or intermittent dosing in critically ill patients with sepsis Int J Antimicrob Agents 35 156 163 20018492 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.10.008 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhs1WltbrE This study showed that administration of piperacillin by continuous infusion, with a loading dose, achieved superior pharmacodynamic targets compared with conventional bolus dosing in septic patients
62. E Boselli D Breilh M Cannesson, et al. 2004 Steady-state plasma and intrapulmonary concentrations of piperacillin/tazobactam 4 g/0.5 g administered to critically ill patients with severe nosocomial pneumonia Intensive Care Med 30 976 979 15057512 10.1007/s00134-004-2222-8 (Pubitemid 38639495)
63. R Kitzes-Cohen D Farin G Piva, et al. 2002 Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of meropenem in critically ill patients Int J Antimicrob Agents 19 105 110 11850162 10.1016/S0924-8579(01)00474-5 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD38Xht1ajsLo%3D (Pubitemid 34168176)
64. F de Stoppelaar L Stolk F van Tiel, et al. 2000 Meropenem pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia J Antimicrob Chemother 46 150 151 10882710 10.1093/jac/46.1.150 (Pubitemid 30466217)
65. S Jaruratanasirikul S Sriwiriyajan J Punyo 2005 Comparison of the pharmacodynamics of meropenem in patients with ventilator-associated pneumonia following administration by 3-hour infusion or bolus injection Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49 1337 1339 15793108 10.1128/AAC.49.4.1337-1339.2005 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXjt1Gjsrg%3D (Pubitemid 40463358)
66. FS Taccone PF Laterre T Durgernier, et al. 2010 Insufficient β-lactam concentrations in the early phase of severe sepsis and septic shock Critical Care 14 R126 20594297 10.1186/cc9091 This study analyzed a large cohort of septic patients and showed that recommended doses of cefepime, ceftazidime and piperacillin are insufficient to provide adequate drug concentrations to treat less susceptible strains, in the early phase of sepsis
67. JA Roberts M Ulldemolins MS Roberts, et al. 2010 Therapeutic drug monitoring of beta-lactams in critically ill patients: proof of concept Int J Antimicrob Agents 36 332 339 20685085 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2010.06.008 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVKjt7fN This study provided the monitoring of several antibiotics in a large cohort of ICU septic patients, showing that dose adjustement are necessary to optimize drug concentrations in most of them
68. MA Zeitlinger BM Erovic R Sauermann, et al. 2005 Plasma concentrations might lead to overestimation of target site activity of piperacillin in patients with sepsis J Antimicrob Chemother 56 703 708 16120628 10.1093/jac/dki284 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVKiu7bO (Pubitemid 41487772)
69. A Klekner K Bagyi L Bognar, et al. 2006 Effectiveness of cephalosporins in the sputum of patients with nosocomial bronchopneumonia J Clin Microbiol 44 3418 3421 16954290 10.1128/JCM.00893-06 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XhtVGnt7jO (Pubitemid 44413794)
70. R Wise M Logan M Cooper, et al. 1990 Meropenem pharmacokinetics and penetration into an inflammatory exudate Antimicrob Agents Chemother 34 1515 1517 2221860 1:CAS:528:DyaK3cXlt1Kjsrs%3D (Pubitemid 20257600)
71. J Lipman CD Gomersall T Gin, et al. 1999 Continuous infusion of ceftazidime in intensive care: a randomized clinical trial J Antimicrob Chemother 43 309 311 11252342 10.1093/jac/43.2.309 1:CAS:528:DyaK1MXhsFymsLg%3D (Pubitemid 29082461)
72. MR Rafati MR Rouini M Mojtahedzadeh, et al. 2006 Clinical efficacy of continous infusion of piperacillin compared to intermittent dosing in septic critically ill patients Int J Antimicrob Agents 28 122 127 16815689 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.02.020 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XnsFygurw%3D (Pubitemid 44108605)
73. TP Lodise Jr B Lomaestro GL Drusano 2007 Piperacillin-tazobactam for Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection: clinical implications of an extended-infusion dosing strategy Clin Infect Dis 44 357 363 17205441 10.1086/510590 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXhvFSqt7c%3D (Pubitemid 46147617)
74. L Lorente A Jimenez S Palmero, et al. 2007 Comparison of clinical cure rates in adults with ventilator-associated pneumonia treated with intravenous ceftazidime administered by continuous or intermittent infusion: a retrospective, nonrandomized, open-label, historical chart review Clin Ther 29 2433 2439 18158083 10.1016/j.clinthera.2007.11.003 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD1cXhtVKju7g%3D (Pubitemid 350298123)
75. TM Chapuis E Giannoni PA Majcherczyk, et al. 2010 Prospective monitoring of cefepime in intensive care unit adult patients Crit Care 14 R51 20359352 10.1186/cc8941 This study showed that elevated plasma levels of cefepime were associated with neurological side effects in critically ill patients
76. ME Falagas P Kopterides 2007 Old antibiotics for infections in critically ill patients Curr Opin Crit Care 13 592 597 17762241 10.1097/MCC. 0b013e32827851d7 (Pubitemid 47357463)
77. N Safdar J Handelsman DG Maki 2004 Does combination antimicrobial therapy reduce mortality in gram-negative bacteraemia? A meta-analysis Lancet Infect Dis 4 519 527 15288826 10.1016/S1473-3099(04)01108-9 (Pubitemid 39077923)
78. Paul M, Silbiger I, Grozinsky S, et al.: Beta lactam antibiotic monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside antibiotic combination therapy for sepsis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006, CD003344.
79. PE Marik I Havlik FS Monteagudo, et al. 1991 The pharmacokinetic of amikacin in critically ill adult and paediatric patients: comparison of once-versus twice-daily dosing regimens J Antimicrob Chemother 27 Suppl C 81 89 1856148
80. G Lugo-Goytia G Castaneda-Hernandez 2000 Bayesian approach to control of amikacin serum concentrations in critically ill patients with sepsis Ann Pharmacother 34 1389 1394 11144694 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3M7jslCrsA%3D%3D
81. G Beaucaire O Leroy C Beuscart, et al. 1991 Clinical and bacteriological efficacy, and practical aspects of amikacin given once daily for severe infections J Antimicrob Chemother 27 Suppl C 91 103 1856149
82. FS Taccone PF Laterre H Spapen, et al. 2010 Revisiting the loading dose of amikacin for patients with severe sepsis and septic shock Critical Care 14 R53 20370907 10.1186/cc8945 This study showed that an higher than recommended loading dose of amikacin was necessary to achieve optimal peak drug concentrations in septic patients
83. RS Rea B Capitano R Bies, et al. 2008 Suboptimal aminoglycoside dosing in critically ill patients Ther Drug Monit 30 674 681 19057371 10.1097/FTD.0b013e31818b6b2f 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsVKnt73N This study suggested that higher aminoglycosides regimens are necessary to optimize drug pharmacodynamics in ICU patients
84. SE Buijk JW Mouton IC Gyssens, et al. 2002 Experience with a once-daily dosing program of aminoglycosides in critically ill patients Intensive Care Med 28 936 942 12122533 10.1007/s00134-002-1313-7 1:STN:280:DC%2BD38zns1CjsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 34762230)
85. C Bartal A Danon F Schlaeffer, et al. 2003 Pharmacokinetic dosing of aminoglycosides: a controlled trial Am J Med 114 194 198 12637133 10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01476-6 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXhvFeqtbk%3D (Pubitemid 36294004)
86. B Layeux FS Taccone D Fagnoul, et al. 2010 Amikacin monotherapy for sepsis caused by panresistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54 4939 4941 20823287 10.1128/AAC.00441-10 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhsVCitrjE
87. M Vázquez P Fagiolino A Boronat, et al. 2008 Therapeutic drug monitoring of vancomycin in severe sepsis and septic shock Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 46 140 145 18397685 This study showed that insufficient vancomycin concentrations were obtained by conventional regimens in septic patients (Pubitemid 351721157)
88. AE Patanwala CJ Norris DE Nix, et al. 2009 Vancomycin dosing for pneumonia in critically ill trauma patients J Trauma 67 802 804 19820588 10.1097/TA.0b013e31818e90d2 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXht1Kju7rK This study showed that insufficient vancomycin concentrations were obtained by conventional regimens in trauma patients with pneumonia
89. MD Kitzis FW Goldstein 2006 Monitoring of vancomycin serum levels for the treatment of staphylococcal infections Clin Microbiol Infect 12 92 95 16460555 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2005.01306.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XosVaguw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 43372248)
90. F Pea P Viale 2008 Should the currently recommended twice-daily dosing still be considered the most appropriate regimen for treating MRSA ventilator-associated pneumonia with vancomycin? Clin Pharmacokinet 47 147 152 18307369 10.2165/00003088-200847030-00001 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXltlWitLo%3D
91. A Vuagnat R Stern A Lotthe, et al. 2004 High dose vancomycin for osteomyelitis: continuous vs. intermittent infusion J Clin Pharm Ther 29 351 357 15271102 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2004.00572.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXntFGlur4%3D (Pubitemid 39062165)
92. M Wysocki F Delatour F Faurisson, et al. 2001 Continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in severe Staphylococcal infections: prospective multicenter randomized study Antimicrob Agents Chemother 45 2460 2467 11502515 10.1128/AAC.45.9.2460-2467.2001 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3MXmt1emsb4%3D (Pubitemid 32801896)
93. J Rello J Sole-Violan M Sa-Borges, et al. 2005 Pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus treated with glycopeptides Crit Care Med 33 1983 1987 16148469 10.1097/01.CCM.0000178180.61305.1D 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXpvVyhtrw%3D (Pubitemid 41306519)
94. PR Ingram DC Lye DA Fisher, et al. 2009 Nephrotoxicity of continuous versus intermittent infusion of vancomycin in outpatient parenteral antimicrobial therapy Int J Antimicrob Agents 34 570 574 19744837 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2009.07.011 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhtlGhs7jL
95. F Pea M Furlanut C Negri, et al. 2009 Prospectively validated dosing nomograms for maximizing the pharmacodynamics of vancomycin administered by continuous infusion in critically ill patients Antimicrob Agents Chemother 53 1863 1867 19223642 10.1128/AAC.01149-08 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXlvVGgtLo%3D This study provided a first normogram to adjust continuous infusion of vancomycin in critically ill patients
96. A Jeurissen I Sluyts R Rutsaert 2011 A higher dose of vancomycin in continuous infusion is needed in critically ill patients Int J Antimicrob Agents 37 75 77 21074374 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2010.09.004 1:CAS:528: DC%2BC3cXhsFyrsrrJ This study suggested the need for higher than recommended vancomycin dosage by continuous infusion in ICU patients
97. Roberts JA, Taccone FS, Udy AA, et al.: Vancomycin dosing in critically ill patients - robust methods for improved continuous infusion regimens. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011 (Epub ahead of print). This study provided new propositions to optimize continuous infusion of vancomycin in septic patients during the early phase of therapy.
98. MJ Hanley DR Abernethy DJ Greenblatt 2010 Effect of obesity on the pharmacokinetics of drugs in humans Clin Pharmacokinet 49 71 87 20067334 10.2165/11318100-000000000-00000 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXjtV2isbg%3D