The BK virus in renal transplant recipients-review of pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment

Pediatric Nephrology

Volumn 26, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 1763-1774

  Dharnidharka, Vikas R ^a   Abdulnour, Husam A ^a   Araya, Carlos E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

BK Virus; BK virus allograft nephropathy; Children; Cidofovir; Kidney transplant; Leflunomide; PCR testing; Polyoma virus

Indexed keywords

ANTIVIRUS AGENT; CIDOFOVIR; CIPROFLOXACIN; CREATININE; CYCLOSPORIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; INTERLEUKIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTIBODY; LEFLUNOMIDE; LEVOFLOXACIN; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PLACEBO; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RAPAMYCIN; RECOMBINANT INTERFERON; TACROLIMUS; TERIFLUNOMIDE; THYMOCYTE ANTIBODY;

ALOPECIA; ANEMIA; BK VIRUS; BK VIRUS NEPHROPATHY; CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS; COLD ISCHEMIA; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; DNA VIRUS INFECTION; DRUG DOSE ESCALATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG MECHANISM; EPSTEIN BARR VIRUS; FOLLOW UP; GRAFT FAILURE; GRAFT RECIPIENT; GRAFT SURVIVAL; HUMAN; IMMUNOCHEMISTRY; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION PREVENTION; KIDNEY FIBROSIS; KIDNEY GRAFT REJECTION; KIDNEY INFECTION; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; LUNG MYCOSIS; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NONHUMAN; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; PATHOGENESIS; PNEUMONIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; THROMBOCYTOPENIA; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; VIREMIA;

ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; BK VIRUS; CHILD; CYTOSINE; HUMANS; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENTS; ISOXAZOLES; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; PHOSPHONIC ACIDS; POLYOMAVIRUS INFECTIONS; REOPERATION; TREATMENT FAILURE;

EID: 80052278060     PISSN: 0931041X     EISSN: 1432198X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00467-010-1716-6     Document Type: Review

References (86)

1. SE Stewart BE Eddy N Borgese 1958 Neoplasms in mice inoculated with a tumor agent carried in tissue culture J Natl Cancer Inst 20 1223 1243 13549981 1:STN:280:DyaG1c%2FptlSjuw%3D%3D
2. SD Gardner AM Field DV Coleman B Hulme 1971 New human papovavirus (B.K.) isolated from urine after renal transplantation Lancet 1 1253 1257 4104714 10.1016/S0140-6736(71)91776-4 1:STN:280:DyaE3M3mtVSqtQ%3D%3D
3. S Rosen W Harmon AM Krensky PJ Edelson BL Padgett BW Grinnell MJ Rubino DL Walker 1983 Tubulo-interstitial nephritis associated with polyomavirus (BK type) infection N Engl J Med 308 1192 1196 6302506 10.1056/NEJM198305193082004 1:STN:280:DyaL3s7pt1ejtw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 13130839)
4. R Purighalla R Shapiro J McCauley P Randhawa 1995 BK virus infection in a kidney allograft diagnosed by needle biopsy Am J Kidney Dis 26 671 673 7573026 10.1016/0272-6386(95)90608-8 1:STN:280:DyaK28%2FitFelsg%3D%3D
5. E Ramos CB Drachenberg JC Papadimitriou O Hamze JC Fink DK Klassen RC Drachenberg A Wiland R Wali CB Cangro E Schweitzer ST Bartlett MR Weir 2002 Clinical course of polyoma virus nephropathy in 67 renal transplant patients J Am Soc Nephrol 13 2145 2151 12138148 10.1097/01.ASN.0000023435.07320.81 (Pubitemid 34790793)
6. O Pappo AJ Demetris RB Raikow PS Randhawa 1996 Human polyoma virus infection of renal allografts: histopathologic diagnosis, clinical significance, and literature review Mod Pathol 9 105 109 8657714 1:STN:280: DyaK283jtFektg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 26092097)
7. PD Acott HH Hirsch 2007 BK virus infection, replication, and diseases in pediatric kidney transplantation Pediatr Nephrol 22 1243 1250 17377822 10.1007/s00467-007-0462-x (Pubitemid 47054911)
8. A Pahari L Rees 2003 BK virus-associated renal problems-clinical implications Pediatr Nephrol 18 743 748 12802640 10.1007/s00467-003-1184-3 (Pubitemid 36949958)
9. A Humar M Michaels 2006 American Society of Transplantation recommendations for screening, monitoring and reporting of infectious complications in immunosuppression trials in recipients of organ transplantation Am J Transplant 6 262 274 16426310 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01207.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28%2FjvVCjug%3D%3D (Pubitemid 43382161)
10. VR Dharnidharka WS Cherikh KC Abbott 2009 An OPTN analysis of national registry data on treatment of BK virus allograft nephropathy in the United States Transplantation 87 1019 1026 19352121 10.1097/TP.0b013e31819cc383
11. F Ginevri R De Santis P Comoli N Pastorino C Rossi G Botti I Fontana A Nocera M Cardillo MR Ciardi F Locatelli R Maccario F Perfumo A Azzi 2003 Polyomavirus BK infection in pediatric kidney-allograft recipients: a single-center analysis of incidence, risk factors, and novel therapeutic approaches Transplantation 75 1266 1270 12717214 10.1097/01.TP.0000061767.32870. 72 1:STN:280:DC%2BD3s7pvVSjtQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 36513032)
12. L Haysom AR Rosenberg G Kainer ZM Waliuzzaman J Roberts WD Rawlinson FE Mackie 2004 BK viral infection in an Australian pediatric renal transplant population Pediatr Transplant 8 480 484 15367284 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00154. x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2cvlvFKgsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 39279018)
13. LC Hymes BL Warshaw 2006 Polyomavirus (BK) in pediatric renal transplants: evaluation of viremic patients with and without BK associated nephritis Pediatr Transplant 10 920 922 17096758 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2006.00575. x (Pubitemid 44683636)
14. M Fogeda P Munoz A Luque MD Morales E Bouza 2007 Cross-sectional study of BK virus infection in pediatric kidney transplant recipients Pediatr Transplant 11 394 401 17493219 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2006.00671.x 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD2sXntVCgtLg%3D (Pubitemid 46669062)
15. J Herman M Van Ranst R Snoeck K Beuselinck E Lerut R Van Damme-Lombaerts 2004 Polyomavirus infection in pediatric renal transplant recipients: evaluation using a quantitative real-time PCR technique Pediatr Transplant 8 485 492 15367285 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2004.00211.x (Pubitemid 39279019)
16. RT Alexander V Langlois R Tellier L Robinson D Hebert 2006 The prevalence of BK viremia and urinary viral shedding in a pediatric renal transplant population: a single-center retrospective analysis Pediatr Transplant 10 586 592 16856995 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2006.00539.x
17. JM Smith VR Dharnidharka L Talley K Martz RA McDonald 2007 BK virus nephropathy in pediatric renal transplant recipients: an analysis of the North American Pediatric Renal Trials and Collaborative Studies (NAPRTCS) registry Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2 1037 1042 17702713 10.2215/CJN.04051206
18. A Muller B Beck K Theilemann L Stapenhorst C Licht D Michalk C Franzen B Hoppe 2005 Detection of polyomavirus BK and JC in children with kidney diseases and renal transplant recipients Pediatr Infect Dis J 24 778 781 16148843 10.1097/01.inf.0000178071.05483.1c (Pubitemid 41324885)
19. HH Hirsch W Knowles M Dickenmann J Passweg T Klimkait MJ Mihatsch J Steiger 2002 Prospective study of polyomavirus type BK replication and nephropathy in renal-transplant recipients N Engl J Med 347 488 496 12181403 10.1056/NEJMoa020439 (Pubitemid 34879336)
20. C Bressollette-Bodin M Coste-Burel M Hourmant V Sebille E Andre-Garnier BM Imbert-Marcille 2005 A prospective longitudinal study of BK virus infection in 104 renal transplant recipients Am J Transplant 5 1926 1933 15996241 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00934.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2MzksVGmtQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 41039867)
21. N Goraya M Narayanan G Jaffers 2009 Biopsy proven BK polyoma nephropathy in the presence of viruria and lack of viremia Am J Transplant 9 426A
22. HH Hirsch J Steiger 2003 Polyomavirus BK Lancet Infect Dis 3 611 623 14522260 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00770-9 (Pubitemid 37210225)
23. JA Low B Magnuson B Tsai MJ Imperiale 2006 Identification of gangliosides GD1b and GT1b as receptors for BK virus J Virol 80 1361 1366 16415013 10.1128/JVI.80.3.1361-1366.2006 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28XpvVWnsw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 43134093)
24. S Eash W Querbes WJ Atwood 2004 Infection of vero cells by BK virus is dependent on caveolae J Virol 78 11583 11590 15479799 10.1128/JVI.78.21.11583- 11590.2004 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXptVKmu78%3D (Pubitemid 39390744)
25. A Egli L Infanti A Dumoulin A Buser J Samaridis C Stebler R Gosert HH Hirsch 2009 Prevalence of polyomavirus BK and JC infection and replication in 400 healthy blood donors J Infect Dis 199 837 846 19434930 10.1086/597126 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXktVygtLw%3D
26. A Stolt K Sasnauskas P Koskela M Lehtinen J Dillner 2003 Seroepidemiology of the human polyomaviruses J Gen Virol 84 1499 1504 12771419 10.1099/vir.0.18842-0 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXks1GmtLw%3D (Pubitemid 36675520)
27. DV Coleman SD Gardner AM Field 1973 Human polyomavirus infection in renal allograft recipients Br Med J 3 371 375 4354179 10.1136/bmj.3.5876.371 1:STN:280:DyaE3s3ltV2ktg%3D%3D
28. T Flaegstad K Ronne AR Filipe T Traavik 1989 Prevalence of anti BK virus antibody in Portugal and Norway Scand J Infect Dis 21 145 147 2543061 10.3109/00365548909039961 1:STN:280:DyaL1M3ms1KrsQ%3D%3D (Pubitemid 19120588)
29. HH Hirsch P Randhawa 2009 BK virus in solid organ transplant recipients Am J Transplant 9 Suppl 4 S136 S146 20070673 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02904.x
30. V Bijol A Cimic RP Viscidi LC Hymes 2010 Pretransplant IgG antibodies to polyoma BK virus in pediatric renal transplants Pediatr Transplant 14 224 227 19496978 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2009.01201.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXktlSlt7g%3D
31. JM Smith RA McDonald LS Finn PJ Healey CL Davis AP Limaye 2004 Polyomavirus nephropathy in pediatric kidney transplant recipients Am J Transplant 4 2109 2117 15575916 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2004.00629.x (Pubitemid 39611641)
32. DL Bohl GA Storch C Ryschkewitsch M Gaudreault-Keener MA Schnitzler EO Major DC Brennan 2005 Donor origin of BK virus in renal transplantation and role of HLA C7 in susceptibility to sustained BK viremia Am J Transplant 5 2213 2221 16095500 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.01000.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXhtVeku7%2FI (Pubitemid 41648468)
33. KL Womer Y Huang H Herren K Dibadj R Peng M Murawski R Shraybman P Patton MJ Clare-Salzler B Kaplan 2010 Dendritic cell deficiency associated with development of BK viremia and nephropathy in renal transplant recipients Transplantation 89 115 123 20061927 10.1097/TP.0b013e3181bc6096
34. P Comoli A Azzi R Maccario S Basso G Botti G Basile I Fontana M Labirio A Cometa F Poli F Perfumo F Locatelli F Ginevri 2004 Polyomavirus BK-specific immunity after kidney transplantation Transplantation 78 1229 1232 15502726 10.1097/01.TP.0000137932.44791.D3 (Pubitemid 39426446)
35. S Binggeli A Egli S Schaub I Binet M Mayr J Steiger HH Hirsch 2007 Polyomavirus BK-specific cellular immune response to VP1 and large T-antigen in kidney transplant recipients Am J Transplant 7 1131 1139 17359507 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2007.01754.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXlvF2nu7Y%3D (Pubitemid 46643106)
36. VR Dharnidharka AH Tejani PL Ho WE Harmon 2002 Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder in the United States: young Caucasian males are at highest risk Am J Transplant 2 993 998 12482154 10.1034/j.1600-6143.2002.21019.x (Pubitemid 36330232)
37. R Gosert CH Rinaldo GA Funk A Egli E Ramos CB Drachenberg HH Hirsch 2008 Polyomavirus BK with rearranged noncoding control region emerge in vivo in renal transplant patients and increase viral replication and cytopathology J Exp Med 205 841 852 18347101 10.1084/jem.20072097 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXkvVyrsrk%3D (Pubitemid 351549882)
38. P Randhawa D Zygmunt R Shapiro A Vats K Weck P Swalsky S Finkelstein 2003 Viral regulatory region sequence variations in kidney tissue obtained from patients with BK virus nephropathy Kidney Int 64 743 747 12846774 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00132.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmsFyrs74%3D (Pubitemid 36871950)
39. AS Weiss J Gralla L Chan P Klem AC Wiseman 2008 Aggressive immunosuppression minimization reduces graft loss following diagnosis of BK virus-associated nephropathy: a comparison of two reduction strategies Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 3 1812 1819 18650404 10.2215/CJN.05691207
40. LC Hymes L Greenbaum SG Amaral BL Warshaw 2007 Surveillance renal transplant biopsies and subclinical rejection at three months post-transplant in pediatric recipients Pediatr Transplant 11 536 539 17631023 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2007.00705.x (Pubitemid 47057333)
41. W Manitpisitkul C Drachenberg E Ramos R Munivenkatappa B Philosophe D Klassen A Haririan 2009 Maintenance immunosuppressive agents as risk factors for BK virus nephropathy: a case-control study Transplantation 88 83 88 19584685 10.1097/TP.0b013e3181aa8d93
42. A Egli S Kohli M Dickenmann HH Hirsch 2009 Inhibition of polyomavirus BK-specific T-Cell responses by immunosuppressive drugs Transplantation 88 1161 1168 19935369 10.1097/TP.0b013e3181bca422 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXhsVOhtrnM
43. B Vasudev S Hariharan SA Hussain YR Zhu BA Bresnahan EP Cohen 2005 BK virus nephritis: risk factors, timing, and outcome in renal transplant recipients Kidney Int 68 1834 1839 16164661 10.1111/j.1523-1755.2005.00602.x (Pubitemid 43169929)
44. A Thomas LK Dropulic MH Rahman D Geetha 2007 Ureteral stents: a novel risk factor for polyomavirus nephropathy Transplantation 84 433 436 17700172 10.1097/01.tp.0000269616.21698.10 (Pubitemid 47258335)
45. DC Brennan I Agha DL Bohl MA Schnitzler KL Hardinger M Lockwood S Torrence R Schuessler T Roby M Gaudreault-Keener GA Storch 2005 Incidence of BK with tacrolimus versus cyclosporine and impact of preemptive immunosuppression reduction Am J Transplant 5 582 594 15707414 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005.00742.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2MXivFSit7w%3D (Pubitemid 40313351)
46. VR Dharnidharka CE Araya CS Wadsworth MC McKinney RJ Howard 2008 Assessing the value of ureteral stent placement in pediatric kidney transplant recipients Transplantation 85 986 991 18408579 10.1097/TP.0b013e318169bf11 (Pubitemid 351543162)
47. GA Funk R Gosert P Comoli F Ginevri HH Hirsch 2008 Polyomavirus BK replication dynamics in vivo and in silico to predict cytopathology and viral clearance in kidney transplants Am J Transplant 8 2368 2377 18925904 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02402.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1cnms1Cntw%3D%3D
48. Y Awadalla P Randhawa K Ruppert A Zeevi RJ Duquesnoy 2004 HLA mismatching increases the risk of BK virus nephropathy in renal transplant recipients Am J Transplant 4 1691 1696 15367226 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2004.00563.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2cXptlKht7k%3D (Pubitemid 39312305)
49. HK Singh KA Andreoni V Madden K True R Detwiler K Weck V Nickeleit 2009 Presence of urinary Haufen accurately predicts polyomavirus nephropathy J Am Soc Nephrol 20 416 427 19158358 10.1681/ASN.2008010117 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD1MXjtFCrtb4%3D
50. HK Singh B Donna Thompson V Nickeleit 2009 Viral Haufen are urinary biomarkers of polyomavirus nephropathy: New diagnostic strategies utilizing negative staining electron microscopy Ultrastruct Pathol 33 222 235 19895295 10.3109/01913120903241081
51. JK Preiksaitis XL Pang JD Fox JM Fenton AM Caliendo GG Miller 2009 Interlaboratory comparison of Epstein-Barr virus viral load assays Am J Transplant 9 269 279 19178414 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02514.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1M7gsFamug%3D%3D
52. XL Pang JD Fox JM Fenton GG Miller AM Caliendo JK Preiksaitis 2009 Interlaboratory comparison of cytomegalovirus viral load assays Am J Transplant 9 258 268 19178413 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02513.x 1:STN:280: DC%2BD1M7gsFamtQ%3D%3D
53. CJ Bechert VJ Schnadig DA Payne J Dong 2010 Monitoring of BK viral load in renal allograft recipients by real-time PCR assays Am J Clin Pathol 133 242 250 20093233 10.1309/AJCP63VDFCKCRUUL 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXit1Gksbg%3D
54. HH Hirsch CB Drachenberg J Steiger E Ramos 2006 Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal transplantation: critical issues of screening and management Adv Exp Med Biol 577 160 173 16626034 10.1007/0-387-32957-9-11 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXpvFOnsQ%3D%3D
55. Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Transplant Work Group 2009 KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients Am J Transplant 9 Suppl 3 S1 S155
56. P Liptak E Kemeny B Ivanyi 2006 Primer: histopathology of polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal allografts Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2 631 636 17066055 10.1038/ncpneph0319 (Pubitemid 44655640)
57. CB Drachenberg JC Papadimitriou HH Hirsch R Wali C Crowder J Nogueira CB Cangro S Mendley A Mian E Ramos 2004 Histological patterns of polyomavirus nephropathy: correlation with graft outcome and viral load Am J Transplant 4 2082 2092 15575913 10.1046/j.1600-6143.2004.00603.x (Pubitemid 39611638)
58. HH Hirsch DC Brennan CB Drachenberg F Ginevri J Gordon AP Limaye MJ Mihatsch V Nickeleit E Ramos P Randhawa R Shapiro J Steiger M Suthanthiran J Trofe 2005 Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal transplantation: interdisciplinary analyses and recommendations Transplantation 79 1277 1286 15912088 10.1097/01.TP.0000156165.83160.09 (Pubitemid 40734783)
59. DL Bohl DC Brennan 2007 BK virus nephropathy and kidney transplantation Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2 Suppl 1 S36 S46 17699509 10.2215/CJN.00920207 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD2sXosVejtr8%3D
60. PS Randhawa K Schonder R Shapiro N Farasati Y Huang 2010 Polyomavirus BK neutralizing activity in human immunoglobulin preparations Transplantation 89 1462 1465 20568674 10.1097/TP.0b013e3181daaaf1 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXns1ymu74%3D
61. S Gabardi SS Waikar S Martin K Roberts J Chen L Borgi H Sheashaa C Dyer SK Malek SG Tullius N Vadivel M Grafals R Abdi N Najafian E Milford A Chandraker 2010 Evaluation of fluoroquinolones for the prevention of BK viremia after renal transplantation Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 5 1298 1304 20507960 10.2215/CJN.08261109 1:CAS:528:DC%2BC3cXhtVehu7jO
62. R Boothpur DC Brennan 2010 Human polyoma viruses and disease with emphasis on clinical BK and JC J Clin Virol 47 306 312 20060360 10.1016/j.jcv.2009.12.006
63. BL Laskin J Goebel 2010 Cost-efficient screening for BK virus in pediatric kidney transplantation: A single-center experience and review of the literature Pediatr Transplant 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2010.01408.x
64. BA Kiberd 2005 Screening to prevent polyoma virus nephropathy: a medical decision analysis Am J Transplant 5 2410 2416 16162189 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2005. 01034.x
65. FS Nolte 2006 Case studies in cost effectiveness of molecular diagnostics for infectious diseases: pulmonary tuberculosis, enteroviral meningitis, and BK virus nephropathy Clin Infect Dis 43 1463 1467 17083023 10.1086/508871 (Pubitemid 44845651)
66. F Smith R Panek BA Kiberd 2009 Screening to prevent polyoma virus nephropathy in kidney transplantation: a cost analysis Am J Transplant 9 2177 2179 19563336 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02729.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1MrnslKktA%3D%3D
67. KL Hardinger MJ Koch DJ Bohl GA Storch DC Brennan 2010 BK-virus and the impact of pre-emptive immunosuppression reduction: 5-year results Am J Transplant 10 407 415 20055811 10.1111/j.1600-6143.2009.02952.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3c3osVGqsQ%3D%3D
68. O Johnston D Jaswal JS Gill S Doucette DA Fergusson GA Knoll 2010 Treatment of polyomavirus infection in kidney transplant recipients: a systematic review Transplantation 89 1057 1070 20090569 10.1097/TP. 0b013e3181d0e15e
69. SH Cheeseman PH Black RH Rubin K Cantell MS Hirsch 1980 Interferon and BK Papovavirus-clinical and laboratory studies J Infect Dis 141 157 161 6154110 10.1093/infdis/141.2.157 1:STN:280:DyaL3c7mtFegtg%3D%3D
70. DP Puliyanda M Toyoda AZ Traum FX Flores S Jordan A Moudgil MJ Somers 2008 Outcome of management strategies for BK virus replication in pediatric renal transplant recipients Pediatr Transplant 12 180 186 18307666 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2007.00784.x (Pubitemid 351326915)
71. CE Araya JF Lew RS Fennell RE Neiberger VR Dharnidharka 2006 Intermediate-dose cidofovir without probenecid in the treatment of BK virus allograft nephropathy Pediatr Transplant 10 32 37 16499584 10.1111/j.1399-3046. 2005.00391.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD28Xjtlert78%3D
72. CE Araya JF Lew RS Fennell RE Neiberger VR Dharnidharka 2008 Intermediate dose cidofovir does not cause additive nephrotoxicity in BK virus allograft nephropathy Pediatr Transplant 12 790 795 18537898 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2008. 00937.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhtlOmu7jF
73. A Vats R Shapiro P Singh Randhawa V Scantlebury A Tuzuner M Saxena ML Moritz TJ Beattie T Gonwa MD Green D Ellis 2003 Quantitative viral load monitoring and cidofovir therapy for the management of BK virus-associated nephropathy in children and adults Transplantation 75 105 112 12544881 10.1097/00007890-200301150-00020 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD3sXmtl2quw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 36139705)
74. G Zavos M Gazouli E Psimenou I Papaconstantinou J Bokos J Boletis A Zografidis A Kostakis 2004 Polyomavirus BK infection in Greek renal transplant recipients Transplant Proc 36 1413 1414 15251347 10.1016/j.transproceed.2004.04. 077 1:STN:280:DC%2BD2czkvFGnsA%3D%3D (Pubitemid 38902992)
75. JK Wu MT Harris 2008 Use of leflunomide in the treatment of polyomavirus BK-associated nephropathy Ann Pharmacother 42 1679 1685 18957628 10.1345/aph.1L180 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXhsVOgu77I
76. CE Araya EH Garin RE Neiberger VR Dharnidharka 2009 Leflunomide therapy for BK virus allograft nephropathy in pediatric and young adult kidney transplant recipients Pediatr Transplant 14 145 150 19344337 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2009.01183.x
77. R Hilton CY Tong 2008 Antiviral therapy for polyomavirus-associated nephropathy after renal transplantation J Antimicrob Chemother 62 855 859 18658193 10.1093/jac/dkn305 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXht1eksr%2FE
78. L Hymes 2010 BK virus nephropathy: a pediatric nephrologist's perspective Transplant Rev (Orlando) 24 28 31
79. A Sener AA House AM Jevnikar N Boudville VC McAlister N Muirhead F Rehman PP Luke 2006 Intravenous immunoglobulin as a treatment for BK virus associated nephropathy: one-year follow-up of renal allograft recipients Transplantation 81 117 120 16421486 10.1097/01.tp.0000181096.14257.c2 1:CAS:528: DC%2BD28XkvF2qtw%3D%3D (Pubitemid 43122158)
80. AP Sharma M Moussa S Casier F Rehman G Filler J Grimmer 2009 Intravenous immunoglobulin as rescue therapy for BK virus nephropathy Pediatr Transplant 13 123 129 18822106 10.1111/j.1399-3046.2008.00958.x 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1MXislKhsro%3D
81. PS Randhawa 2005 Anti-BK virus activity of ciprofloxacin and related antibiotics Clin Infect Dis 41 1366 1367 16206122 10.1086/497080 author reply 1367 (Pubitemid 41532690)
82. LK Dropulic RJ Jones 2008 Polyomavirus BK infection in blood and marrow transplant recipients Bone Marrow Transplant 41 11 18 17952131 10.1038/sj.bmt.1705886 1:STN:280:DC%2BD1c%2Fkt1yhsg%3D%3D
83. MA Josephson JW Williams A Chandraker PS Randhawa 2006 Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy: update on antiviral strategies Transpl Infect Dis 8 95 101 16734632 10.1111/j.1399-3062.2006.00150.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BD28zgvVGmsg%3D%3D (Pubitemid 43829486)
84. VR Dharnidharka WS Cherikh R Neff Y Cheng KC Abbott 2010 Retransplantation after BK virus nephropathy in prior kidney transplant: an OPTN database analysis Am J Transplant 10 1312 1315 20353461 10.1111/j.1600-6143. 2010.03083.x 1:STN:280:DC%2BC3c3ovFOruw%3D%3D
85. C Almeras V Foulongne V Garrigue I Szwarc F Vetromile M Segondy G Mourad 2008 Does reduction in immunosuppression in viremic patients prevent BK virus nephropathy in de novo renal transplant recipients? A prospective study Transplantation 85 1099 1104 18431228 10.1097/TP.0b013e31816a33d4 1:CAS:528:DC%2BD1cXltVGktrw%3D (Pubitemid 351590186)
86. WM Bennett L Meyer J Ridenour TD Batiuk 2010 Surveillance and Modification of Immunosuppression Minimizes BK Virus Nephropathy Am J Nephrol 32 10 12 20484894 10.1159/000313888