Clinical pathology of the shock syndromes

Journal of Emergencies, Trauma and Shock

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 233-243

  Bonanno, Fabrizio Giuseppe ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Assessment; cryptic shock; hypotension; irreversible shock; shock

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960073194     PISSN: 09742700     EISSN: 0974519X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4103/0974-2700.82211     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (101)

1. Haljame H. Microcirculation and hemorrhagic shock. Am J Em Med 1984;2:100-7.
2. Nakai K, Ikatura T, Naka Y, Ikatura T, Imai H, Komai N, et al. The distribution of adrenergic receptors in cerebral vessels: an autoradiographic study. Brain Res 1986;381:148-52. (Pubitemid 16049671)
3. Bruce CJ, Livingston DH, Schneider CA, Loder PA, Siegel JH. The effect of cocaine on the physiological response to hemorrhagic shock. Surgery 1993;114:429-35. (Pubitemid 23243360)
4. Rice IR, Kirkeby OJ. Effect of cerebral ischemia on the cerebrovascular and cardiovascular response to haemorrhage. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 1998;140:699-705.
5. Gettings LG, Reynolds HN, Scalea T. Outcome in post-traumatic acute renal failure when continuous renal replacement therapy is applied early vs late. Intensive Care Med 1999;25:805-13. (Pubitemid 29410647)
6. Bagshaw SM, George C, Bellomo R; the ANZICS Database Management Committee. Early acute kidney injury and sepsis: a multicenter evaluation. Crit Care 2008;12:R47.
7. Tranbaugh RF, Elings VB, Christensen J, Lewis FR. Determinants of pulmonary interstitial fluid accumulation after trauma. J Trauma 1982;22:820-6. (Pubitemid 13250872)
8. Cain BS, Meldrum DR, Dinarello CA, Meng X, Joo KS, Banerjee A, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukn-1 beta synergistically depress human myocardial function. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1309-18. (Pubitemid 29379369)
9. Kumar A, Brar R, Wang P, Dee L, Skorupa G, Khadour F, et al. Role of nitric oxide and cGMP in human septic serum-induced depression of cardiac myocyte contractility. Am J Physiol 1999;276:R265-6.
10. Lee MA, Yatani A, Sambol JT, Deitch EA. Role of gut-lymph factors in the induction of burn-induced and trauma-shock-induced acute heart failure. Int J Clin Exp Med 2008;1:171-80.
11. Taccone FS, Su F, Pierrakos C, He X, James S, Dewitte O, et al. Cerebral microcirculation is impaired during sepsis: an experimental study. Crit Care 2010;14:R140.
12. Sharshar T, Polito A, Checinski A, Stevens RD. Septic-associated encephalopathy - everything starts at a microlevel. Crit Care 2010; 14:199.
13. Cosgriff N, Moore EE, Sauaia A, Kenny-Moynihan M, Burch JM, Galloway B. Predicting life-threatening coagulopathy in the massively transfused trauma patient: hypothermia and acidosis revisited. J Trauma 1997;42:857-61.
14. Trunkey DD. Initial treatment of patients with extensive trauma. N Engl J Med 1991;324:1259-63.
15. Durham R, Neunaber K, Vogler G, Shapiro M, Mazuski J. Right ventricular end-diastolic volume as a measure of preload. J Trauma 1995;39:218-23.
16. Singer M, Bennett ED. Non invasive optimization of left ventricular filling using oesophageal Doppler. Crit Care Med 1991; 19:1132-37.
17. Trof RJ, Danad I, Reilingh MW, Breukers RM, Groneveld J. Cardiac filling volumes versus pressures for predicting fluid responsiveness after cardiovascular surgery: the role of systolic cardiac function. Crit Care 2011; 15:R73.
18. Groner W, Winkelman JW, Harris AG, Ince C, Bouma GJ, Messmer K, et al. Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging: a new method for study of the microcirculation. Nat Med 1999;5:1209-12.
19. Ince C. Sidestream dark field (SDF) imaging: an improved technique to observe sublingual microcirculation. Crit Care 2005;8 (suppl 1):72.
20. Creteur J, De Backer D, Sakr Y, Koch M, Vincent J. Sublingual capnometry tracks microcirculatory changes in septic patients. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:516-23.
21. De Backer D, Ospina-Tascon G, Salgado D, Favory R, Creteur J, Vincent JL. Monitoring the microcirculation in the critically ill patient: current methods and future approaches. Intensive Care Med 2010;[epub ahead of print]
22. Astiz M, Rackow EC, Weil MH, Schumer W. Early impairment of oxidative metabolism and energy production in severe sepsis. Circ Shock 1988;26:311-20. (Pubitemid 18268355)
23. Anning PB, Sair M, Winlove CP, Evans TW. Abnormal tissue oxygenation and cardiovascular changes in endotoxemia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1999;159:1710-15. (Pubitemid 29275032)
24. Siegemund M, Van Bommel J, Ince C. Assessment of regional tissue oxygenation. Intensive Care Med 1999;25:1044-60. (Pubitemid 29525058)
25. Caille V, Squara P: Oxygen uptake-to-delivery relationship: a way to assess adequate flow. Crit Care 2006;10(S):S4.
26. Tweddell JS, Ghanayem NS, Hoffman GM. Pro: NIRS is "standard of care" for postoperative management. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu. 2010;13:44-50.
27. Dellinger RP, Carlet JM, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:536-55. (Pubitemid 38541501)
28. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, Bion J, Parker MM, Jaeschke R, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Intensive Care Med 2008;34:17-60.
29. Rackow EC, Kaufmann BS, Falk JL, Astiz ME, Weil MH. Hemodynamic response to fluid repletion in patients with septic shock: evidence for early depression of cardiac performance. Circ Shock 1987;22:11-22. (Pubitemid 17115558)
30. Samsel RW, Nelson DP, Sanders WM, Wood LD, Schumacker PT. Effect of endotoxin on systemic and skeletal muscle O 2 extraction. J Appl Physiol 1988;65:1377-82.
31. Schumacker PT, Samsel RW. Oxygen delivery and uptake by peripheral tissues: physiology and pathophysiology. Crit Care Clin 1989;5:255-69. (Pubitemid 19111048)
32. Walley KR. Heterogeneity of oxygen delivery impairs oxygen extraction by peripheral tissues: theory. J Appl Physiol 81: 885-894, 1996 (Pubitemid 26303245)
33. Yang S, Cioffi WG, Bland KI, Chaudry IH, Wang P. Differential alterations in systemic and regional oxygen delivery and consumption during the early and late stages of sepsis. J Trauma 1999;47:706-12. (Pubitemid 29489522)
34. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, et al. ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee: Definitions for severe sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Chest 1992;101:1644-55.
35. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, Abraham E, Angus D, Cook D, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS: International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Intensive Care Med 2003;29:530-8. (Pubitemid 36523666)
36. Baue AE. MOF, MODS, and SIRS: what is in a name or in an acronym? Shock 2006;26:438-49.
37. Bone RC, Balk RA, Cerra FB, Dellinger RP, Fein AM, Knaus WA, et al. ACCP/SCCM Consensus Conference Committee: Definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Chest 2009;136(5 Suppl):e28.
38. Taylor AE, Moore TM. Capillary fluid exchange. Am J Physiol 1999;277:S203-10.
39. Dellinger RP. Cardiovascular management of septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003;31:946-55. (Pubitemid 36379609)
40. Ellis CG, Wrigley SM, Groom AC. Heterogeneity of red blood cell perfusion in capillary networks supplied by a single arteriole in resting skeletal muscle. Circ Res 1994;75:357-68. (Pubitemid 24228328)
41. Nakajima Y, Baudry N, Duranteau J, Vicaut E. Microcirculation in intestinal villi: a comparison between hemorrhagic and endotoxin shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001;164:1526-30. (Pubitemid 33124038)
42. Ellis CG, Bateman RM, Sharpe MD, Sibbald WJ, Gill R. Effect of a maldistribution of microvascular blood flow on capillary O 2 extraction in sepsis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2002;282:156-64.
43. Bhagat K, Moss R, Collier J, Vallance P. Endothelial stunning following a brief exposure to endotoxin: a mechanism to link infection and infarction? Cardiovasc Res 1996;32:822-29. (Pubitemid 26342646)
44. Hingorani AD, Cross J, Kharbanda RK, Mullen MJ, Bhagat K, Taylor M, et al. Acute systemic inflammation impairs endothelium-dependent dilation in humans. Circulation 2000;102:994-99. (Pubitemid 30657515)
45. Motterlini R, Kerger H, Green CJ, Winslow RM, Intaglietta M. Depression of endothelial and smooth muscle cell oxygen consumption by endotoxin. Am J Physiol 1998;275:H776-H782.
46. Karimova A, Pinsky DJ. The endothelial response to oxygen deprivation: biology and clinical implications. Intensive Care Med 2001;27:19-31. (Pubitemid 32208964)
47. Doerschug KC, Delsing AS, Schmidt GA, Haynes WG. Impairment in microvascular reactivity is related to organ failure in human sepsis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiology 2007;293:H1065-H1071. (Pubitemid 47254206)
48. Engelberger RP, Pittet YK, Henry H, Delodder F, Hayoz D, Chiolro RL, et al. Acute endotoxemia inhibits microvascular nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in humans. Shock 2011;35:28-34.
49. Bonanno F. Extending damage control philosophy to non-haemorrhagic situations: implications for a reclassification of shock states. ANZJS 2008;78:634-7.
50. Boffard KD. Resuscitative physiology. In: Boffard KD (Ed) Manual of Definitive Trauma Care. London: Arnold publisher: 2003. pp 7-38.
51. Donnino MW, Nguyen B, Jacobsen G, Tomlanovich M, Rivers E. Cryptic septic shock: a subanalysis of early, goal directed therapy. Chest 2003; 124:905.
52. Lima A, Jansen TC, Van Bommel J, Ince C, Bakker J. The prognostic value of the subjective assessment of peripheral perfusion in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2009;37:934-8.
53. Cryer HG, Leong K, McArthur DL, Demetriades D, Bongard FS, Fleming AW, et al. Multiple organ failure: by the time you predict it, it is already there. J Trauma 1999;46:597-604.
54. Douzinas EE, Andrianakis I, Livaditi O, Paneris P, Tasoulis M, Pelekanou A, Betrosian A, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ. The level of hypotension during hemorrhagic shock is a major determinant of the post-resuscitation systemic inflammatory response: an experimental study. BMC Physiol 2008;18;8:15.
55. Cohen ES, Hollenberg SM. Tissue oxygenation and sepsis. Crit Care Med 2001;29:1479-80. (Pubitemid 32641818)
56. Otero RM, Nguyen HB, Huang DT, Gaieski DF, Goyal M, Gunnerson KJ, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in severe sepsis and septic shock revisited: concepts, controversies and contemporary findings. Chest 2006;130:1579-85.
57. Rixen D, Siegel JH. Bench-to-bedside review: oxygen debt and its metabolic correlates as quantifiers of the severity of hemorrhagic and post-traumatic shock. Crit Care 2005;9:441-53. (Pubitemid 41498539)
58. Brohi K, Cohen MJ, Ganter MT, Matthay MA, Mackersie RC, Pittet JF. Acute traumatic coagulopathy: Initiated by hypoperfusion: Modulated through the protein C pathway? Ann Surg 2007;245:812-8. (Pubitemid 46684113)
59. Matsumoto H, Mashiko K, Sakamoto Y, Kutsukata N, Hara Y, Yokota H. A new look at criteria for damage control surgery. J Nippon Med Sch 2010;77:13-20.
60. Ince C, Sinaappel M. Microcirculatory oxygenation and shunting in sepsis and shock. Crit Care Med 1999;27:1369-77. (Pubitemid 29379377)
61. Fink MP. Bench-to-bedside review: Cytopathic hypoxia. Crit Care 2002;6:491-9. (Pubitemid 35414580)
62. Deitch EA. The role of intestinal barrier failure and bacterial translocation in the development of systemic infection and multiple organ failure. Arch Surg 1990;125:403-4. (Pubitemid 20079089)
63. Deeb GM, Grum CM, Lynch MJ Guynn TP, Gallagher KP, Ljungman AG, et al. Neutrophils are not necessary for induction of ischemia-reperfusion lung injury. J Appl Physiol 1990;68:374-81. (Pubitemid 20075258)
64. Saadia R, Schein M, McFarlane J, Boffard K. Gut barrier and the surgeon. Br J Surg 1990;77:487-92.
65. Steimle CN, Guynn TP, Morganroth ML, Bolling SF, Carr K, Deeb GM. Neutrophils are not necessary for ischemia-reperfusion lung injury. Ann Thorac Surg 1992;53:64-72.
66. Deitch EA, Xu D, Franco L, Ayala A, Chaudry IH. Evidence favouring the role of the gut as cytokine-generating organ in rats subjected to haemorrhagic shock. Shock 1994;1:141-5.
67. Koike K, Moore EE. Moore FA, Read RA, Carl VS, Banerjee A. Gut ischemia/reperfusion produces lung injury independent of endotoxin. Crit Care Med 1994;9:1438-44.
68. Peitzman AB, Billiar TR, Harbrecht BG, Kelly E, Udekwu AO, Simmons RL. Hemorrhagic shock. Curr Probl Surg 1995;32:925-1002.
69. Schein M, Witmann DH, Aprahamian CC, Condor ER. The abdominal compartment syndrome: the physiological and clinical consequences of elevated intra-abdominal pressure. J Am Coll Surg 1995;180:745-53.
70. Moore FA, Sauaia A, Moore EE, Haenel JB, Burch JM, Lezotte DC. Postinjury multiple organ failure: a bimodal phenomenon. J Trauma 1996;40:501-12. (Pubitemid 26117484)
71. Tamion F, Richard V, Lyoumi S, Daveau M, Bonmarchand G, Leroy J, et al. Gut ischemia and mesenteric synthesis of inflammatory cytokines after hemorrhagic or endotoxic shock. Am J Physiol - Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 1997;273:314-21.
72. Yassin MM, Barros DSa AA, Parks TG, McCaigue MD, Leggett P, Halliday MI, et al. Lower limb ischaemia-reperfusion injury alters gastrointestinal structure and function. Br J Surg 1997;84:1425-29.
73. Yassin MM, Barros DSa AA, Parks TG, Soong CV, Halliday MI, McCaigue MD, et al. Lower limb ischaemia-reperfusion injury causes endotoxaemia and endogenous antiendotoxin antibody consumption but not bacterial translocation. Br J Surg 1998;85:785-9. (Pubitemid 28300509)
74. Garrison RN, Spain DA, Wilson MA, Keelen PA, Harris PD. Microvascular changes explain the "two-hit" theory of multiple organ failure. Ann Surg 1998;227:851-60. (Pubitemid 29119532)
75. Rowlands BJ, Soong CV, Gardiner KR. The gastrointestinal tract as a barrier in sepsis. Br Med Bull 1999;55:196-211. (Pubitemid 29243558)
76. Reilly PM, Wilkins KB, Fuh KC, Haglund U, Bulkley GB. The mesenteric hemodynamic response to circulatory shock: an overview. Shock 2001;15:329-43. (Pubitemid 33596728)
77. Saini MS, Liberati DM, Diebel LN. Sequential changes in mucosal immunity after haemorrhagic shock. Am Surg 2001;67:797-801. (Pubitemid 33738892)
78. Baylor AE, Diebel LN, Liberati DM, Dulchawski SA, Brown WJ, Diglio CA. The synergistic effects of hypoxia/reoxygenation or tissue acidosis and bacteria on intestinal apoptosis. J Trauma 2003; 55:241-8. (Pubitemid 37047391)
79. Niu CY, Hou YL, Zhao ZG, Zhang YF, Ji JJ, Qiao HX, et al. Role of intestinal lymphatic pathway in pathogenesis of intestine derived bacteria/endotoxin translocation in rats in shock. Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue 2007;19:266-9.
80. Perl M, Chung CS, Perl U Lomas-Neira J, de Paepe M, Cioffi WG, et al. Fas induced pulmonary apoptosis and inflammation during indirect lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2007;176:591-601. (Pubitemid 47403277)
81. Senthil M, Watkins A, Barlos D, Xu DZ, Lu Q, Abungu B, et al. Intravenous injection of trauma-hemorrhagic shock mesenteric lymph causes lung injury that is dependent upon activation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase pathway. Ann Surg 2007;246:822-30. (Pubitemid 350035659)
82. Watkins AC, Caputo FJ, Badami C, Barlos D, Xu da Z, Lu Q, et al. Mesenteric lymph duct ligation attenuates lung injury and neutrophil activation after intraperitoneal injection of endotoxin in rats. J Trauma 2008;64:126-30.
83. Zhao ZG, Niu CY, Zhang J, Chen RH, Zhang YP, Jiang H, et al. Effect of ligation of mesenteric lymph duct on inflammation response of liver hemorrhagic shock in rats. Zhongguo Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Xue 2008;20:385-9.
84. Feinman R, Deitch EA, Watkins AC, Abungu B, Colorado I, Kannan KB, et al. Hypoxia Inducible Factor (HIF-1) mediates pathogenic inflammatory responses to intestinal ischemia reperfusion injury. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2010;299:G833-43.
85. Rutherford RB, Arora S, Fleming PW, Monaghan T, Lowenstein DH. Delayed onset pulmonary insufficiency in primates resuscitated from hemorrhagic shock. J Trauma 1979;19:422-31. (Pubitemid 9216077)
86. Regel G, Grotz M, Weltner T, Sturm JM, Tscherne H. Pattern of organ failure following severe trauma. World J Surg 1996;20:422-9. (Pubitemid 26138589)
87. Yassin MM, Harkin DW, Barros DSa AA, Halliday MI, Rowlands BJ. Lower limb ischemia-reperfusion injury triggers a systemic inflammatory response and multiple organ dysfunction. World J Surg 2002;26:115-21. (Pubitemid 36918828)
88. Yassin MM, Barros DSa AA, Parks G, Abdulkadir AS, Halliday I, Rowlands BJ. Mortality following lower limb ischemia-reperfusion: a systemic inflammatory response? World J Surg 1996;20:961-7. (Pubitemid 26322080)
89. Kologlu M, Sayek I, Kologlu B, Eng C, Onat D. Effect of persistently elevated intra-abdominal pressure on healing of colonic anastomoses. Am J Surg 1999;178:293-7.
90. Kologlu M, Yorganci K, Renda N, Sayek I. Effect of local and remote ischemia-reperfusion injury on healing of colonic anastomoses. Surgery 2000;128:99-104. (Pubitemid 30456902)
91. Lefer AM, Lefer DJ. Pharmacology of the endothelium in ischemia-reperfusion and circulatory shock. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1993;33:71-90. (Pubitemid 23116001)
92. Nathan C. Oxygen and the inflammatory cell. Nature 2003;17: 675-6.
93. Assalia A, Bitterman H, Hirsh TM, Krausz MM. Influence of hypertonic saline on bacterial translocation in controlled hemorrhagic shock. Intensive Care Med 2004;30:1011-13.
94. Sessler C, Windsor A, Schwartz M: Circulating ICAM-1 is increased in septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151:1420-7.
95. Muller AM, Cronen C, Muller KM, Kirkpatrick CJ: Heterogeneous expression of cell adhesion molecules by endothelial cells in ARDS. J Pathol 2002;198:270-5. (Pubitemid 35243886)
96. Vallet B. Bench-to-bedside review: Endothelial cell dysfunction in severe sepsis: a role in organ dysfunction? Critical Care 2003;7:130-8. (Pubitemid 36432671)
97. Levi M, De Jonge E, Van Der Poll T. Sepsis and disseminated intravascular coagulation. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2003;16:43-7. (Pubitemid 38477222)
98. Bonanno GF. Physiopatholgy of shock. J Emergencies, Trauma, and Shock 2011;4:222-32.
99. Rutherford RB, Balis JV, Trows RS, Graves GM. Comparison of hemodynamic and regional blood flow at equivalent stages of endotoxin and hemorrhaghic shock. J Trauma 1976;16:886-97. (Pubitemid 8007771)
100. McMillen MA, Huribal M, Sumpio B. Common pathway of endothelial-leukocyte interaction in shock, ischemia, and reperfusion. Am J Surg 1993;166:557-62. (Pubitemid 24304204)
101. Ullian ME. The role of corticosteroids in the regulation of vascular tone. Cardiovasc Res 1999;41:55-64. (Pubitemid 29016046)