Wikipedia and the emergence of dialogic expertise

Southern Communication Journal

Volumn 75, Issue 5, 2010, Pages 505-526

  Hartelius, E Johanna ^a  

^a NORTHERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 79959944262     PISSN: 1041794X     EISSN: 19303203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10417940903377169     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Angelo Fernando, "The Wisdom of Wikipedians," Communication World (November= December 2007): 10.
2. Quoted in Nora Miller, "Calling Out the Symbol Users: Wikipedia Revisited," ETC (April 2007): 148.
3. Miller, "Calling Out," 148.
4. Mick O'Leary, "Wikipedia: Encyclopedia or Not?" Information Today (September 2005): 49.
5. Karen R. Brandt, Lauren, M. Copper, and Stephen A. Dewhurst,"Expertise and Recollective Experience: Recognition and Memory for Familiar and Unfamiliar Academic Subjects," Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (2005): 1113-1125
6. Fernand Gobet, "Expert Memory: A Comparison of Four Theories," Cognition 66 (1998): 115-152
7. Roland H. Grabner, Aljoscha C. Neubauer, and Elsbeth Stern, "Superior Performance and Neural Efficiency: The Impact of Intelligence and Expertise," Brain Research Bulletin 69 (2006): 422-439
8. Jarrod Moss, Kenneth Kotovsky, and Jonathan Cagan, "The Role of Functionality in the Mental Representations of Engineering Students: Some Differences in the Early Stages of Expertise," Cognitive Science 30 (2006): 65-93
9. Remy M. J. P. Rikers and Fred Paas, "Recent Advances in Expertise Research," Applied Cognitive Psychology 19 (2005): 145-149.
10. Willian G. Chase and Herbert A. Simon, "The Mind's Eye in Chess," in Visual Information Processing, ed. W. G. Chase, 215-281 (New York: Academic Press, 1973)
11. Adriaan De Groot, Het Denken Van Den Schaker (Amsterdam: Noord Hollandsche, 1946)
12. K. Anders Ericsson, Ralf Th. Krampe, and Clemens Tesch-Römer, "The Role of Deliberative Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance," Psychological Review 100 (1993): 363-406.
13. Brandt, Copper, and Dewhurst, "Expertise and Recollective Experience," 1113.
14. Richard Cherwitz and James Hikins, Communication and Knowledge: An Investigation in Rhetorical Epistemology (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1986)
15. Robert L. Scott, "On Viewing Rhetoric as Epistemic," Central States Speech Journal 18 (1967): 9-17.
16. I employ "the utterance" with the assumption that it fits conceptually under dialogue as an "umbrella term." Charles Schuster, "Mikhail Bakhtin as Rhetorical Theorist," in Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing, ed. Frank Farmer, 10 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998).
17. Although others of Bakhtin's terms, for example "heteroglossia" and "polyphony, " may be quite relevant, they are beyond the scope of my article, whose objective is to analyze expertise rather than survey or chart Bakhtin's theoretical landscape.
18. Jodi Dean, Publicity's Secret: How Technoculture Capitalizes on Democracy (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2002), 102. I return to Dean's discussion of "technocratic elites" later in the article.
19. Frank Farmer, ed., Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998), xv.
20. Insofar as my article addresses the democratizing function of dialogue in public discourse, it speaks to a long-standing debate in rhetorical scholarship surrounding alternatives to the dominance of traditional rationality, particularly as the latter is illustrated by the cult(ure) of expertise. Walter Fisher's original works begin by outlining particular problems with the rational paradigm, offering narrative as a corrective: "The actualization of the rational world paradigm [.] depends on a form of society that permits, if not requires, participation of qualified persons in public decision-making."
21. Walter R. Fisher, "Narration as a Human Communication Paradigm: The Case of Public Moral Argument," Communication Monographs 51 (1984): 4.
22. This society, which Fisher critiques, dictates that "some persons are qualified to judge and to lead and some other persons are to follow." Fisher, "Narration," 9.
23. See also, Fisher, "The Narrative Paradigm: An elaboration," Communication Monographs 52 (1985): 347-367
24. Human Communication as Narration: Toward a Philosophy of Reason, Values, and Action (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1987)
25. "Clarifying the Narrative Paradigm, " Communication Monographs 56 (1989): 55-58.
26. Fisher's advocacy of the narrative paradigm has since its publication been thoroughly critiqued. See for example W. Lance Bennett and Murray Edelman, "Toward a New Political Narrative," Journal of Communication 35 (1985): 156-171
27. Robert C. Rowland, "On Limiting the Narrative Paradigm: Three Case Studies," Communication Monographs 56 (1989): 39-54
28. Barbara Warnick, "The Narrative Paradigm: Another story," Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 172-182.
29. Scholars have argued that narrative rationality as theorized by Fisher depends on affirming people's preexisting beliefs; thus convictions that ought to be challenged may instead be reinforced. The narrative paradigm, critics claim, constrain rhetorics of social change, possibility, and potential.
30. William G. Kirkwood, "Narrative and the Rhetoric of Possibility," Communication Monographs 59 (1992): 30-47.
31. Nevertheless, the discussion of democratic public discourse, practical reason, and critiques of expertise continues. A recent and most instructive treatment is James Aune's analysis of the democratic style as "a resistance to the language of elite expertise, especially that of bankers and lawyers, a simultaneous valorization of the plain style and the overwrought emotional appeals of stem-winding stump speakers and evangelical preachers, and enthusiasm for popular celebrations and rituals, especially those with a striking visual appeal."
32. James Arnt Aune, "Democratic Style and Ideological Containment," Rhetoric and Public Affairs 11 (2008): 485.
33. My article, while participating in the scholarly movement to locate certain democratic possibilities online, also devotes serious attention to critiquing the rhetorical processes that a text like Wikipedia relies on to challenge traditional expertise, particularly as those processes potentially both replace and reproduce old institutions.
34. Mikhail Bakhtin, "The Problem of Speech Genres," in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, 62 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1986)
35. From Notes Made in 1970-71, in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, 154 (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1986)
36. see also Farmer, Landmark Essays, xiii.
37. Gary Saul Morson and Caryl Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin: The Creation of a Prosaic (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 15-32.
38. At the time of writing, each term has an entry in Wikipedia. Worth noting is that the article on hairspray begins: "This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. WikiProject Chemistry or the Chemistry Portal may be able to help recruit one." Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_spray (accessed July 17, 2009).
39. John M. Murphy, "Mikhail Bakhtin and the Rhetorical Tradition," Quarterly Journal of Speech 87 (2001): 259-277
40. Kay Halasek, "Feminism and Bakhtin: Dialogic Reading in the Academy," in Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing, ed. Frank Farmer, 51-62 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998)
41. James Jasinski, "Heteroglossia, Polyphony, and the Federalist Papers," Rhetoric Society Quarterly 27 (1997): 23-46
42. Margaret D. Zulick, "Pursuing Controversy: Kristeva's Split Subject, Bakhtin's Many-Tongued World," Argumentation and Advocacy 28 (1991): 91-102
43. "The Agon of Jeremiah: On the Dialogic Invention of Prophetic Ethos," Quarterly Journal of Speech 78 (1992): 125-148
44. "Generative Rhetoric and Public Argument: A Classical Approach," Argumentation and Advocacy 33 (1997): 109-119.
45. Before proceeding, it is helpful to briefly distinguish my own objective from the abundance of scholarship and popular press that Wikipedia draws, the majority of which focuses on Wikipedia as a cultural phenomenon, young people's use of Wikipedia for academic purposes, etc. Alexander Halavais and Derek Lackaff,"An Analysis of Topical Coverage of Wikipedia," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 13 (2008): 429-440
46. John Jones, "Patterns of Revision in Online Writing: A Study of Wikipedia's Featured Articles," Written Communication 25 (2008): 262-289
47. Nora Miller, "Wikipedia and the Disappearing 'Author,"' ETC (January 2005): 37-40
48. Ulrike Pfeil, Panayiotis Zaphiris, and Chee Siang Ang, "Cultural Differences in Collaborative Authoring of Wikipedia," Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (2006): 88-113
49. Stacy Schiff, "Know It All: Can Wikipedia Conquer Expertise?" The New Yorker 82 (2006): 36-43
50. Donna Shaw, "Wikipedia in the Newsroom," American Journalism Review 30 (2008): 40-45.
51. Many writers seek specifically to assess how Wikipedia compares in terms of accuracy to more traditional encyclopedias, in particular the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Paula Berinstein," Wikipedia and Britannica," Searcher (March 2006): 16-26
52. Robert Eiffert, "Wikipedia, The Review: How the Online Behemoth Compares to Standard Reference Works," School Library Journal (March 2006): 82-83
53. In a widely cited study, a group of experts was asked to assess 42 scientific entries from Wikipedia and Encyclopaedia Britannica, respectively. The entries did not identify the source. Findings reported that an average Britannica article contained about three errors, while the same average article in Wikipedia contained four.
54. Jim Giles, "Internet Encyclopaedias Go Head to Head," Nature 15 (2005): 900-901.
55. Unlike much work on Wikipedia, my analysis emphasizes the rhetorical struggle over expertise, particularly the significance in such a struggle of dialogue. The analysis relies on both content-oriented Wikipedia articles and meta-discourse, i.e., information that contributors produce about the site; I complement this by including some media commentary about the site and its effects in public culture.
56. Robert Collision, Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages (New York: Hafner Publishing Company, 1966), 2.
57. Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 6.
58. Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 5.
59. Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 3.
60. Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 12.
61. Dorothy Auchter,"The Evolution of the Encyclopaedia Britannica: From the Macropaedia to Britannica Online," Reference Services Review 27 (1999): 291.
62. Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions, 170.
63. Susan E. Clark, "In Search of the Right Formula: Encyclopaedia Britannica Ventures from Print to Online to Both," Reference and User Services Quarterly 41 (2001): 136.
64. Jay David Bolter, Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print, 2nd ed. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associated, 2001), 87.
65. Jay David Bolter, Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print, 2nd ed. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associated, 2001), 87., 91.
66. Katherine Mangu-Ward, "Wikipedia and Beyond," Reason 39 (2007): 19.
67. See Wikipedia, s.v. "Wikipedia."
68. Mangu-Ward, "Wikipedia and Beyond," 18.
69. Collision, History Throughout the Ages, 227.
70. Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions, 253.
71. Jeff Loveland, "Unifying Knowledge and Dividing Disciplines," Book History 9 (2006): 67.
72. Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions, 247.
73. Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions, 22.
74. For a few reproductions of such artwork see Collision and Yeo.
75. Hyperlinks are those parts of an html document that users "click on" to access a different page.
76. This section implicitly points to a number of topics that are indirectly related but nevertheless beyond the scope of my project: Cyberculture, virtual communities, digital literacy, etc. For instructive treatments of cyberculture
77. see Darren Tofts, Annemarie Jonson, and Alessio Cavallaro, eds., Prefiguring Cyberculture: An Intellectual History (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003)
78. Fred Turner, From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006). Regarding virtual communities
79. see James E. Katz, Ronald E. Rice, and Philip Aspden,"The Internet, 1995-2000: Access, Civic Involvement, and Social Interaction," American Behavioral Scientist 45 (2001): 405-419
80. Robert Kraut et al., "Internet Paradox Revisited," Journal of Social Issues 58 (2002): 49-74
81. Mark Nunes, "Jean Baudrillard in Cyberspace: Internet, Virtuality, and Postmodernity," Style 29 (1995): 27-31
82. Michael Patterson and Robert Kraut, "Internet Paradox: A Social Technology that Reduces Social Involvement and Psychological Well-Being?" American Psychologist 53 (1998): 1017-1031
83. Derek Powazek, Design for Community: The Art of Connecting Real People in Virtual Places (Indianapolis: New Riders, 2002)
84. Howard Rheingold, The Virtual Community (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2000)
85. Marc Smith and Peter Kollock, Communities in Cyberspace (New York: Routledge, 1999)
86. Sherry Turkle, "Virtuality and its Discontents: Searching for Community in Cyberspace," American Prospect 24 (1996): 50-57.
87. Regarding digital literacy see Sven Birkerts, The Gutenberg Elegies: The Fate of Reading in an Electronic Age (Boston: Faber and Faber, 1994)
88. George Landow, Hypertext 2.0: The Convergence of Contemporary Critical Theory and Technology, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997)
89. Richard Lanham, The Electronic Word: Democracy, Technology, and the Arts (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993)
90. Myron Tuman, Wordperfect: Literacy in the Computer Age (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1992).
91. Bjørn Hofmann, "Medicine as Techne - A Perspective from Antiquity," Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 28 (2003): 411.
92. Aristotle, On Rhetoric, trans. and ed. G. A. Kennedy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 175.
93. Wikipedia, s.v. "Welcome to Wikipedia," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Welcoming_committee=Welcome_to_Wikipedia (accessed September 20, 2007).
94. Wikipedia, s.v. "Five Pillars," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Five_pillars (accessed September 20, 2007). The community pages include policies such as the "neutral point of view" and the "five pillars that define Wikipedia's character."
95. Wikipedia, s.v. "Simplified Ruleset," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Simplified_Ruleset (accessed September 20, 2007).
96. Wikipedia, s.v. "Talk Page Guidelines," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Talk_page_guidelines (accessed September 20, 2007).
97. Wikipedia, s.v. "What Is Wikipedia?" available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/ Wikipedia:Introduction (accessed September 20, 2007).
98. See Wikipedia, s.v. 'Wikipedia." Wikipedia, s.v. "What Wikipedia is Not," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not (accessed September 25, 2007).
99. Kinley Levack,"If Two Heads Are Better than One, Try 7,000 with Wikipedia," EContent- Mag.com (April 2003), available through the University of Texas at Austin at http://web.ebscohost.com (accessed December 2, 2007).
100. Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin, 52.
101. Bakhtin, Notes, 150.
102. Mikhail Bakhtin, "Toward a Methodology for the Human Sciences," in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1986), 163.
103. Jon Klancher, 'Bakhtin's Rhetoric,' in Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing, ed. Frank Farmer (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998), 24.
104. See also Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin, 60.
105. Bakhtin, Notes, 147.
106. My intention here is not to engage the scholarly debate over Bakhtin's distinction between the early and the later Platonic dialogues, the former of which he arguably found more instructive toward a dialogic understanding of truth and rhetoric.
107. See James Zappen, The Rebirth of Dialogue: Bakhtin, Socrates, and the Rhetorical Tradition (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004).
108. Such a distinction seems to hinge on a rather restrictive definition of rhetoric as persuasion, which does not concur with the assumptions of this article. For a response to Bakhtin's criticism of rhetoric,
109. see Jasinski, "Heteroglossia," 24-27.
110. Bakhtin, Problem, 84-92.
111. See also Notes, 135 and "The Problem of the Text in Linguistics, Philology, and the Human Sciences: An Experiment in Philosophical Analysis," in Speech Genres and Other Late Essays, trans. Vern W. McGee, ed. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1986), 118.
112. Bakhtin, Notes, 146.
113. Bakhtin, Problem, 64.
114. Thomas Kent, "Hermeneutics and Genre: Bakhtin and the Problem of Communicative Interaction," in Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing, ed. Frank Farmer (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998), 36.
115. Bakhtin, Problem, 82.
116. Bakhtin, Text in Linguistics, 117.
117. Bakhtin, Text in Linguistics, 125.
118. Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin, 39.
119. Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin, 57
120. see also 30. A nice illustration of how Wikipedia facilitates creative messiness are the so-called "sandboxes," in which new users practice posting content before editing a real article. Wikipedia, s.v. "Editing Wikipedia: Sandbox," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Sandbox&action1/4edit (accessed November 21, 2007).
121. The sandboxes are "for editing experiments." They are modeled to look like regular articles but are designed specifically for nonpermanent posting. In a real sandbox, play is messy, creative, and ultimately ephemeral. Any construct can be either decimated or cleaned up; the sandbox returns to its original state.
122. Wikipedia, s.v. "What Is Wikipedia?"
123. Wikipedia, s.v. "List of Policies." Note, however, that the cohort of volunteers who maintains Wikipedia arbitrates even this policy. These chief Wikipedians determine which kind of rule-breaking improves Wikipedia and which kind does not. The latter, as we have seen, is met with scorn and reprimand.
124. Farmer, Landmark Essays, xiv.
125. Wikipedia, s.v. "Welcome to Wikipedia."
126. Schuster, "Mikhail Bakhtin," 3.
127. Wikipedia, s.v. "No Original Research," available at: http://en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research (accessed September 20, 2007).
128. The policy defines original research as "editors' personal views, political opinions, and any unpublished analysis or synthesis of published material that appears to advance a position." The policy mandates that "any facts, opinions, interpretations, definitions, and arguments published by Wikipedia must already have been published by a reliable publication in relation to the topic of the article." It does not comment on the potentially problematic notions of "fact," interpretation," or "reliable publication."
129. For example, something like YouTube or "couch surfing," which more or less require a playful attitude, can be subject to expertise in Wikipedia.
130. Wikipedia, s.v. "What Is Wikipedia?"
131. Wikipedia, s.v. "Photosynthesis," available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis (accessed October 23, 2007).
132. Bakhtin, Text in Linguistics, 114-115.
133. Bakhtin, Text in Linguistics, 121.
134. As R. Allen Harris explains, "the authorial voice is a distillation of an untold number of prior voices." "Bakhtin, Phaedrus, and the Geometry of Rhetoric," in Landmark Essays on Bakhtin, Rhetoric, and Writing, ed. Frank Farmer, 18 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 1998).
135. Bakhtin, Problem, 71.
136. As James Zappen writes, "indeed in the context of an exchange of utterances the very concept of listener=reader becomes suspect since the listener=reader is not simply a listener or reader but the next person in a sequence of speakers=listeners or writers=readers who participate in the exchange." The Rebirth of Dialogue, 11, original emphasis.
137. In Bakhtin's understanding of dialogue, the existence of a real or imagined partner is central. As Morson and Emerson explain, "one can relate dialogically only to a person; when we treat it [an utterance] as an utterance, we are necessarily positing an author, even if there really is no author," Michael Bakhtin, 133.
138. A promising future inquiry might investigate to what extent the Wikipedia community writ large fulfills the role of this imagined audience, indeed of "superaddressee." The superaddressee is Bakhtin's term for the hypothesized third person in every dialogic exchange. It is the one "whose absolutely just responsive understanding is presumed, either in some metaphysical distance or in distant historical time." Text in Linguistics, 126.
139. As Bakhtin notes, the superaddressee assumes a variety of ideological modes: God, Absolute Truth, Science, and so on; to this list, one might add Wikipedia itself. If one of the site's primary goods is providing an ongoing, pseudonymous dialogue, Wikipedia may be the "invisible presence" that discourse itself produces through its fundamental need to be heard and known by others. Morson and Emerson, Mikhail Bakhtin, 136.
140. Bakhtin, Problem, 69.
141. Bakhtin, Problem, 68. This is what Thomas Kent calls the "hermeneutical guessing game." Kent, "Hermeneutics and Genre," 34.
142. Wikipedia, s.v. "Welcome to Wikipedia."
143. Wikipedia, s.v. "Simplified Ruleset."
144. Cormac Lawler, "A 'Resource Review' of Wikipedia," Counselling and Psychotherapy Research 6 (2006): 216.
145. A few incidents of Wikipedia misuse are widely publicized: A contributor using the pseudonym Essjay edited thousands of Wikipedia articles as well as mediated disputes. He purported to be a tenured professor of religion specializing in canon law; in reality, Mr. Ryan Jordan was a 24-year-old college dropout from Louisville, Kentucky. Noam Cohen, "A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side," New York Times (5 March 2007), sec. C, p. 5.
146. In 2005, a man named Brian Chase suggested on Wikipedia that journalist John Siegenthaler, who once worked for Robert Kennedy, was intimately linked to the John F. Kennedy assassination. Siegenthaler, who months later discovered the misinformation and complained to Jim Wales, criticized Wikipedia's lack of accountability in USA Today. Jon Udell, "Wikipedia's Future," Infoworld.com (9 January 2006): 30.
147. Another blogger named Alex Havalais, director for the informatics school at the University of Buffalo, logged onto Wikipedia under the pseudonym "Dr. al-Halawi," and inserted 13 minor errors into different Wikipedia entries-including the claim that Frederick Douglass lived in Syracuse, New York for four years. He reports that, after two and a half hours, every error had been corrected by site visitors. Kathy Ishizuka, "The Wikipedia Wars," School Library Journal (November 2004): 25.
148. In addition, there have been reports of Senate office staff deleting or altering Wikipedia entries about political opponents. Eiffert, "Wikipedia, The Review," 82.
149. Lawler, "Resource Review," 216.
150. Cohen, "A Contributor to Wikipedia,"5.
151. Bakhtin, Text in Linguistics, 121.
152. Robert Levine, "The Many Voices of Wikipedia, Heard in One Place," New York Times, August 7, 2006, sec. C, p. 4.
153. See Wikipedia, s.v. "Wikipedia."
154. Berinstein, "Wikipedia and Britannica," 17.
155. Roy Rosenzweig, "Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past," Journal of American History 93 (2006): 127.
156. "Venturing into the Land of Wiki: Experiencing the People's Information Revolution," Logos (17 February 2006): 102.
157. Ann Kirschner, "Adventures in the Land of Wikipedia," Chronicle of Higher Education, November 17, 2006, sec. B, 10-11.
158. Dean, Publicity's Secret, 15.
159. Dean writes, "Let's be clear: the growth of new media technologies both drives and has been driven by the global market. A democratic decision-making process did not produce the World Wide Web. There were no democratic debates in which people concluded: 'Gee, what we really need is a global telecommunications infrastructure that will enable corporations to consolidate their power."' Dean, Publicity's Secret, 157.
160. Dean, Publicity's Secret, 102.
161. Brock Read, "Can Wikipedia Ever Make the Grade?" Chronicle of Higher Education October 27, 2006, sec. A, 31-36.
162. "Beware the 'Anticredentialist' Wikipedia," Library Journal (December 2005): 15.
163. For example, postings do not count toward tenure and promotion. Wikipedia articles are shorter and more fragmented than the traditional scholarly publication. And there is always the risk that the work might be torn apart by a layperson to whom the scholar is unused to answering. As one Wikipedia critic notes, "to many professors, it seems to be a waste of time to negotiate with people who in any other context would be taking a class from them." Read. Note the implicit dispreference for public dialogue; to an institution that is founded on the monologizing of knowledge," negotiating with people" is in no way necessary for, or even related to, epistemology.
164. Halasek, "Feminism and Bakhtin," 98-99.
165. Murphy, "Rhetorical Tradition," 267.
166. Zappen, The Rebirth of Dialogue, 14.