Civic Integration, Migrant Women and the Veil: At the Limits of Rights?

Modern Law Review

Volumn 74, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 27-56

  Mullally, Siobhán ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY COLLEGE CORK   (Ireland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79959689861     PISSN: 00267961     EISSN: 14682230     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2230.2010.00835.x     Document Type: Article

References (125)

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2. Assemblé Nationale, 'Rapport D'Information Sur La Pratique Du Port Du Voile Integral Sur Le Territoire National' 26 January 2010109
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4. C. Joppke, Veil: Mirror of Identity (Cambridge: Polity, 2009
5. C. Joppke, 'The retreat of multiculturalism in the liberal state: theory and policy' (2004) 55 British Journal of Sociology 237
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8. Path to Citizenship: Next Steps in Reforming the Immigration System (February 2008). On the compatibility of citizenship testing with liberalism, see: EUDO Forum on Citizenship, (2010) 'How Liberal are Citizenship Tests' at (last visited 18 October 2010); On the expansion of integration testing in Europe, see: 'Citizenship Tests in a Post-National Era'International Journal of Multicultural Societies Special Issue (2008) Vol 10(1) discussing recent developments in the Netherlands, Denmark, FSee, for example: Home Office, UK Border Agency, The rance and the UK. See also 'Migration and Citizenship Attribution: Politics and Policies in Western Europe' Special Issue () Vol 36(5) Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies edited by M. Vink and R. de Groot2010
9. C. Dauvergne, 'Globalizing Fragmentation: New Pressures on Women Caught in the Immigration Law - Citizenship Law Dichotomy' in S. Benhabib and J. Resnik, Migrations and Mobilities: Citizenship, Borders, and Gender (New York: New York University Press, 333-355,3342009
10. In France, see: 'Rapport D'Information Sur La Pratique Du Port Du Voile Integral Sur Le Territoire National' ((Paris: 26 January) (Report of the Gerin Commission)2010
11. ILA, Final Report on Women's Equality and Nationality in International Law (London: International Law Association, 2000). Article 9 of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, on nationality, remains one of the most heavily reserved of the treaty's provisions. For the full text of reservations, see (last visited 15 October 2010
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15. The full title of this ministerial position is: Minister for Immigration, Integration, National Identity and Solidarity Development. See: 'Le thème de l'identité nationale divise à droite comme à gauche'Le Monde 29 October 2009 at (last visited 15 October 2010
16. Belgium is the most recent state to consider legislation imposing a general restriction on the wearing of the burqua or niqab in public spaces. The bill, approved unanimously by the lower chamber's Home Affairs Committee on 31 March 2010, would make it a crime to be in a public place with one's face partially or wholly concealed in a way that would make identification impossible. Violators would be subject to a fine of 15 to 25 euros and/or a prison sentence of one to seven days. Twenty out of 589 municipalities in Belgium already prohibit wearing full Muslim veils in public. Similar local restrictions exist in parts of Italy and the Netherlands. See: Human Rights Watch, Belgium, 'Muslim Veil Ban Would Violate Rights' (Brussels, 21 April) at (last visited 15 October 2010). See also n 2 above at 712010
17. In France, see: Loi no 2003-1119 relative à la maîtrise de l'immigration, au séjour des étrangers en France et à la nationalité of 26 November 2003 and Loi no 2006-911 relative à l'immigration et à l'integration. See also: Loi no 2007-1631 relative à la maîtrise de l'immigration, à l'intégration et à l'asile of 20 November 2007, introducing the Contrat d'acceuil et d'intégration pour la famille (CAIF), Article 7. At EU level, see: Council Directive concerning the status of third-country nationals who are long-term residents, 2003/109, [2004] OJ L 16/44, 23.1.2004 and; Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 on the Right to Family Reunification, OJ L 251/12, 3.10.2003. For commentary, see: S. Carrera, In Search of the Perfect Citizen: The Intersection Between Integration, Immigration, and Nationality in the EU (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2009) ch 6 and; M. Beaujeau, 'Le modèle français d'intégration dans tous ses états: Entre réaffirmations républicaines et tentations populistes' () 10 International Journal on Multicultural Societies 27. On developments on family reunification at the EU level, see: D. Kostakopoulou, S. Carrera and M. Jesse, 'Doing and Deserving: Competing Frames of Integration in the EU' in E. Guild et al, n 5 above.2008
18. Earning the right to citizenship, by speaking English, working hard and paying taxes, obeying the law and demonstrating 'active citizenship' is at the centre of a new 'architecture' of citizenship, introduced in the UK Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Act 2009. See further: D. Kirwan, 'Becoming a British Citizen: A Learning Journey'Citizenship Review (December 2007) at (last visited 18 October 2010); UK Home Office Secure Borders, Safe Havens: Integration with Diversity in Modern Britain (CM 5387, 2002); Impact Assessment of Earned Citizenship Proposals Borders, Citizenship and Immigration Bill, 15 January 2009 at (last visited 18 October 2010
19. See: Leyla Sahin v Turkey (Application no 44774/98), Grand Chamber Judgment of 10 November 2005, (2005) 19 BHRC 590; Dogru v France App 27058/05 [2008] ECHR 1579 (4 December 2008); R (Begum) v Head Teacher and Governors of Denbigh High School 1 AC 100, discussed further below2008
20. Conseil d'État, Étude relative aux possibilités juridiques d'interdiction du port du voile intégral, 25 March 2010
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22. Décision du Conseil d'État du 27 Juin 2008, available at n 2 above, 642
23. See for example, CERD General Recommendation XXX, pt 4. See also: D. S. Weissbrodt, The Human Rights of Non-Citizens (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press,). At EU level, see Chakroun v Minister van Buitenlandse Zaken, C-578/08, European Court of Justice, 4 March 2010, on the lawfulness of integration abroad requirements imposed by the Netherlands in the context of the Family Reunification Directive, (Council Directive 2003/86/EC of 22 September 2003 on the right to family reunification)2008
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27. E. M. Daly, 'Religious Liberty and the Rawlsian Idea of Legitimacy: the French Laïcité Project between Comprehensive and Political Liberalisms' (2010) 5 Religion and Human Rights 11
28. Leyla Sahin v Turkey (Application no 44774/98) Grand Chamber Judgment of 10 November 2005 () 19 BHRC 5902005
29. n 2 above, Proposition no 16 189
30. n 2 above, 87, citing Le Monde 9 December 2009
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32. J. W. Scott, The Politics of the Veil (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007 89
33. U. Narayan, Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third-World Feminism (New York: Routledge Publishing, 1997 19
34. D. McGoldrick, 'Accommodating Muslims in Europe: From Adopting Sharia Law to Religiously Based Opt Outs from Generally Applicable Laws' Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) v Turkey 2003-II 37 EHRR 1 (GC). For commentary see: () 9 Human Rights Law Review 6032009
35. See (last visited October 2010
36. S. M. Okin and others, Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999
37. B. Cossman, 'Turning the Gaze Back on Itself: Comparative Law, This phrase is borrowed from:Feminist Legal Studies, and the Postcolonial Project' () 2 Utah L Rev 5251997
38. A. Badiou, Le Monde 22 February 2004
39. n 2 above, 114 and 120
40. R (Begum) v Head Teacher and Governors of Denbigh High School [] 1 AC 1002007
41. See full text of the legislative proposal at (last visited 18 October 2010
42. Conseil d'État. Rapport public: jurisprudence et avis de 2003. Un siècle de laïcité (Etudes et documents, Conseil d'État, no 55, Paris; La Documentation française2007
43. See: Conseil constitutionnel no 93-325 DC du 13 août sur la loi relative a la maitrise de l'immigration et aux conditions d'entrée, d'accueil et de sejour des étrangers en France, cited at n 19 above, 271993
44. n 20 above, Exposé des Motifs, 3-5
45. Décision no 2010-613 DC du 07 octobre, Loi interdisant la dissimulation du visage dans l'espace public2010
46. ibid paras 5-6
47. J. Butler, Antigone's Claim (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000
48. S. Razack, 'Dangerous Muslim Men, Imperiled Muslim Women and Civilized Europeans: Legal and Social Response to Forced Marriages' () 12(2) Feminist Legal Studies 129-1742008
49. J. Crowley, 'Politics of Belonging: Some Theoretical Considerations' in A. Geddes and A. Favell (eds), The Politics of Belonging: Migrants and Minorities in Contemporary Europe (Aldershot: Ashgate Press, 1999 30
50. Décision du Conseil d'État du 27 Juin 2008 at n 2 above, 642 at (last visited 18 October 2010
51. Conclusions de Mme Prada Bordenave, Commissaire du Gouvernement, 4 at (last visited 15 February 2010
52. ibid. This latter reference, in particular, is strange, suggesting that if Mme M had preferred to be attended by a female gynaecologist, a further failing of assimilation would have been found. It highlights the heightened surveillance of the immigrant woman by the State.
53. F. Amara, interviewed in Le Parisien 16 July 2008.2008
54. Mme Faiza A, cited in: 'A Veil Closes France's Door to Citizenship'New York Times 19 July 2008
55. 2/6 ssr, 3 février 1999, Mme EY au rapport de Mme de Margerie, cited in Conclusions n 77 above, 3. The Conseil d'État had remained somewhat above the political fray, in debates on the wearing of the veil, repeatedly seeking to limit the impact of new legislative restrictions on religious dress. See for example: Avis du Conseil d'État 27 November 1989 No 346893, described as a 'Solomonic judgment'. S. Benhabib and others, Another Cosmopolitanism (New York and Oxford: Berkeley Tanner lectures, Oxford University Press, 2006 55-56
56. P. Weil, How to be French: Nationality in the Making Since 1789 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2009
57. A. Badiou, Le Monde 22 February 2004
58. B. Cossman, Sexual Citizens: the Legal and Cultural Regulation of Sex and Belonging (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007 204
59. P. Weil, 'Why French Laïcité is Liberal' Cardozo Law Review 2699, 3020096
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62. J. Bauberot, 'Laïcité and the Challenge of "Republicanisme"' () 17 Modern & Contemporary France 1892009
63. P. Weil, n 86 above
64. For a fuller discussion of these points, see: P. Kahn, n 29 above; E. M. Daly, n 29 above; J. Myard, (ed), La Laïcité au Coeur de la Republique' (proceedings of colloquium at French National Assembly, 23 May 2003), (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2003); E. Poulat, Liberté, Laïcité (Paris: Editions du Cerf, 1987); H. Pena-Ruiz, Dieu et Marianne: Philosophie de la Laïcité (Paris: PUF, 1999
65. See P. Weil, n 86 above
66. J. Bauberot 'L'integrisme Republicain Contre la Laïcité' (La Tour d'Aigues, Éditions de l'Aube; 2006
67. Prime Minister Raffarin, addressing the Assemblée Nationale, 148th session 3 February 2004
68. LOI no 2005-158 du 23 février 2005 portant reconnaissance de la Nation et contribution nationale en faveur des Français rapatriés at (last visited 16 October 2010
69. A petition, protesting the law gathered more than 1000 signatories from historians. The petition was coordinated by: Ligue des droits de l'Homme; Mouvement contre le Racisme et pour l'Amitié entre les Peuples (MRAP); Syndicat de la magistrature; Association française des anthropologues; Fédération de l'éducation, de la recherche et de la culture CGT (FERC-CGT); Institut Charles-André Julien; Association Les amis de Max Marchand, de Mouloud Feraoun et de leurs compagnons; Collectif Haïti de France
70. C. Joppke,A New Politics of Identity: Political Principles for an Interdependent World n 3 above and B. Parekh, (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008
71. C. Joppke, n 3 above, 115
72. The full text of the reservation is available at (last visited 18 October 2010
73. Concluding Observations of the Human Rights Committee: France UN Doc CCPR/C/FRA/CO/4 31 July para 112008
74. Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Rights of the Child: France UN Doc CRC/C/FRA/CO/4 11 June para 1012009
75. CRC Committee Concluding Observations: France UN Doc CRC/C/15/Add.240 30 June paras 25-262004
76. ibid. References to common religious symbols leave open the possibility that the treaty bodies might find differently if the symbols or dress in question were less common, and presumably more threatening to dominant cultural norms, and ways of life. This possibility was explicitly suggested by Human Rights Committee member, Ruth Wedgewood, in Hudoyberganova v Uzbekistan, in which the Committee found the respondent state to have violated article 18(2) of the ICCPR, by excluding the applicant from attending a state university while wearing the hijab. In an individual opinion, Wedgewood commented that states may be permitted to restrict forms of dress that 'directly interfere with effective pedagogy' and noted that the 'covering of a student's face would present 'a different set of facts
77. n 101 above, para 7
78. Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: France 18/04/ UN Doc CERD/C/FRA/CO/162005
79. CEDAW Committee Concluding Observations: France, Sixth Periodic Report UN Doc CEDAW/C/FRA/CO/6, paragraphs 21-22. The Committee also expressed concern in relation to Turkey's ban on the Islamic headscarf in schools and universities, and has recommended that the State monitor the impact of the ban, and compile information on the number of women and girls who have been excluded because of its implementation. CEDAW Committee, Concluding Observations: Turkey Combined Fourth and Fifth Periodic Reports, UN Doc A/60/38 part I2005
80. For a recent discussion of France's position on the collection of data relating to ethnicity, see: Le Comité pour la mesure et l'évaluation de la diversité et des discriminations (Comedd), Final Report (5 February 2010) at (last visited 16 October 2010
81. UN Human Rights Committee, General Comment No 28, Equality of rights between men and women (article 3) CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10 (2000) para 13 at (last visited 16 October 2010
82. K. Knop, Diversity and Self-determination in International Law (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press,) 358. It is this aspect of cultural rights that also informed the Committee's findings in Lovelace v Canada Communication No 24/77, formerly Communication No R.6/24, GAOR 36th session, Supplement No 40, UN Doc A/36/40(1981) 166, a case that goes beyond the sometimes too easy invocation of exit, as the solution to feminism/multiculturalism disputes. In Lovelace the Committee highlighted Lovelace's right to enjoy her culture in community with others, without being subject to discriminatory laws of exclusion, that required her to choose between exit or cultural membership2002
83. Report submitted by Asma Jahangir, Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Mission to France, (18 to 29 September) UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.4, para 672005
84. See: Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: France, UN Doc A/HRC/8/47 3 June para 21 and para 382008
85. Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: FRANCE - Addendum, Response of France to the recommendations made during the Universal Periodic Review on 14 May 2008, UN Doc A/HRC/8/47/Add.1 25 Augustk, para 752008
86. This term is borrowed from M. Malik, Muslim Legal Norms and the Integration of European Muslims RSCAS 2009/29, EUI Working Paper at (last visited 18 October 2010
87. On 30 June 2009, a Chamber of the European Court of Human Rights declared inadmissible six applications lodged against France concerning the expulsion of pupils from school for wearing conspicuous symbols of religious affiliation: see Aktas v France Application No 43563/08; Gamaleddyn v France Application No 18527/08; Baurak v France Application No 14308/08; Ghazal v France Application No 29134/08; J. Singh v France Application No 25463/08; and R. Singh v France Application No 27561/08. El Morsli v France Application No 15585/06, Decision of 4 March, concerned a refusal to remove a veil so that identity could be verified at a French consulate in Marrakesh. The applicant's article 9 complaint was held to be manifestly ill-founded2008
88. Dogru v France App 27058/05 [2008] ECHR 1579 (4 December 2008
89. ibid at citing paragraph 106 of Sahin judgment n 30 above62
90. ibid at citing paragraph 107 of the Sahin judgment62
91. The Court refused to assess the severity of the penalty applied to the pupils, noting that it did not wish 'to substitute its own vision for that of the disciplinary authorities' which were best placed to 'evaluate local needs and conditions'ibid at [76]. The Court also held that no separate question arose under the right to education (Protocol 1, Article 2), as the circumstances were the same as those arising under Article 9 (freedom of religion)
92. R (Begum) v Head Teacher and Governors of Denbigh High School 1 AC 1002007
93. F. Tulkens, 'The European Convention on Human Rights and church-state relations:n 30 above, at See further: pluralism vs. pluralism (200809) 30(6) Cardozo Law Review 2575122
94. n 30 above, Dissenting opinion of Judge Tulkens at 5
95. ibid Dissenting Opinion of Justice Tulkens, at 3
96. K. Boyle, 'Human Rights, Religion and Democracy: the Refah Partisi case' (2004) 1 Essex Human Rights Review 1, cited in D. McGoldrick n 50 above, 612
97. Application no 41135/98 date of judgment 23 Feb 2010. See also Lautsi v Italy, Application no. 30814/06, 1 March 2010
98. T. Hammarberg, 'Rulings anywhere that women must wear the burqa should be condemned - but banning such dresses here would be wrong' says Commissioner Hammarberg, 8 March 2010, Viewpoint at: (last visited 16 October 2010
99. See for example, CERD General Recommendation XXX, pt 4. See also: D. S. Weissbrodt, The Human Rights of Non-citizens (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2008
100. S. Benhabib, The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents and Citizens (Cambridge: John Robert Seeley lectures, Cambridge University Press,2004142
101. See: Common Basic Principles (CBP) for Immigrant Integration Policy in the European Union, adopted by at the Justice and Home Affairs Council Meeting 2618m 14614/04, 19 November 2004; Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social committee and the Committee of the Regions -A Common Agenda for Integration-Framework for the Integration of Third-Country Nationals in the European Union (COM/2005/0389 final); Council Conclusions on the Strengthening of Integration Policies in the EU by promoting unity in diversity, adopted at the 2807th Justice and Home Affairs Council Meeting, Luxembourg, 12-13 June 2007
102. Council of the European Union 2009, 'The Stockholm Programme - An open and secure Europe serving and protecting the citizens' Doc 17024/09 Brussels December. See also: E. Collett, 2008 The EU immigration Pact: from Hague to Stockholm, via Paris (Brussels: EPC Policy Brief, 2008) at (last visited 18 October 2010
103. Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community Article 63b, OJ C 306 17 December 2007
104. See M. Beaujeau, n 16 above
105. n 16 above, discussed in S. Carrera, n 16 above. See also P. Weil, n 82 above
106. Article 7.2 of the Council Directive on the Right to Family Reunification /86 permits Member States to require third country nationals to comply with integration measures. As Carrera notes, the term measures is distinct from conditions, suggesting that Member States would not be justified in imposing mandatory integration requirements to limit access to EU rights and guarantees provided by the Directive. See S. Carrera, ibid 344-3452003
107. M. A. Fineman, 'The Sexual Family' in J. E. Jackson, M. A. Fineman, and A. P. Romero (eds), Feminist and Queer Legal Theory: On the dominance of the 'sexual family form' see:Intimate Encounters, Uncomfortable Conversations (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009
108. D. Kostakopoulou, For a discussion of the integration contract, see'The Anatomy of Civic Integration' (2010) 73 MLR 933
109. n 2 above Annexe No 1, Délibrations de la Haute Autorité de Lutte Contre Les Discriminations et L'égalité 634
110. J. H. Carens, 'The integration of immigrants' 2 Journal of Moral Philosophy 29, challenging the normative basis for integration conditions2005
111. S. Mullally, 'Citizenship and family life in Ireland: asking the question "Who belongs"' (2005) 25 Legal Studies 578 and A. Appiah, The Ethics of Identity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005
112. S. Benhabib, Transformations of citizenship dilemmas of the nation state in the era of globalization: two lectures (Assen: Spinoza lectures, Koninklijke Van Gorcum, 682001
113. K. M. Franke, 'Becoming a Citizen: Reconstruction Era Regulation of African American Marriages'11 Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities 2511999
114. J. Habermas, Europe: the Faltering Project (Cambridge and Malden: MAPolity, 2009
115. See: Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social committee and the Committee of the Regions, A Common Agenda for Integration-Framework for the Integration of Third-Country Nationals in the European Union COM/2005/0389 final
116. D. Kostakopoulou, 'Matters of Control: Integration Tests, Naturalisation Reform and Probationary Citizenship in the United Kingdom' 36(5) Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 8292010
117. W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Citizenship: a Liberal Theory of Minority Rights (Oxford: Oxford Political Theory, Clarendon Press,1995 23-24
118. S. Scheffler, 'Immigration and the Significance of Culture' 35 Philosophy & Public Affairs 93, 1172007
119. See: Kostakopoulou, n 145 above
120. I. M. Young, 'Polity and Group Difference: A Critique of the Ideal of Universal Citizenship' in R. Beiner, Theorizing Citizenship (Albany: SUNY series in political theory. Contemporary issues, State University of New York Press, 1995
121. C. A. MacKinnon, Are Women Human: and other International Dialogues (Cambridge, Mass: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2006106
122. L. Bosniak, The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006132
123. N. S. Rose, Inventing our Selves: Psychology, Power, and Personhood (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge studies in the history of psychology, Cambridge University Press, 1996157
124. W. Kymlicka, Multicultural Odysseys: Navigating the New International Politics of Diversity (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); A. Xanthaki, 'Multiculturalism and International Law: Discussing Universal Standards' 32 Human Rights Quarterly 212010
125. S. Mullally,See for example: General Recommendation No 21 (13th session, 1994) Equality in marriage and family relations. Gender, Culture and Human Rights: Reclaiming Universalism (Oxford and Portland, OR: Human rights law in perspective, Hart, ch2006 6