Recent advances in preventive cardiology and lifestyle medicine: A Themed series

Circulation

Volumn 123, Issue 20, 2011, Pages 2274-2283

  Franklin, Barry A ^a   Cushman, Mary ^b  

^a WILLIAM BEAUMONT HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

lifestyle medicine; preventive cardiology

Indexed keywords

ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CYANOCOBALAMIN; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FOLIC ACID; HOMOCYSTEINE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; PLACEBO; PYRIDOXINE; ROSUVASTATIN;

ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME; AIR POLLUTION; ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CIGARETTE SMOKING; DIET; HEALTH STATUS; HEART PROTECTION; HEART REHABILITATION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; MORTALITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PASSIVE SMOKING; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; RISK FACTOR;

CARDIOLOGY; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMORBIDITY; HUMANS; PREVALENCE; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR;

EID: 79958157766     PISSN: 00097322     EISSN: 15244539     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.981613     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Ford ES, Ajani UA, Croft JB, Critchley JA, Labarthe DR, Kottke TE, Giles WH, Capewell S. Explaining the decrease in U.S. deaths from coronary disease, 1980-2000. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:2388-2398. (Pubitemid 46883773)
2. Wijeysundera HC, Machado M, Farahati F, Wang X, Witteman W, van der Velde G, Tu JV, Lee DS, Goodman SG, Petrella R, O'Flaherty M, Krahn M, Capewell S. Association of temporal trends in risk factors and treatment uptake with coronary heart disease mortality, 1994-2005. JAMA. 2010;303:1841-1847.
3. Lloyd-Jones DM, Hong Y, Labarthe D, Mozaffarian D, Appel LJ, Van Horn L, Greenlund K, Daniels S, Nichol G, Tomaselli GF, Arnett DK, Fonarow GC, Ho M, Lauer MS, Masoudi FA, Robertson RM, Roger V, Schwamm LH, Sorlie P, Yancy CW, Rosamond WD; on behalf of the American Heart Association Strategic Planning Task Force and Statistics Committee. Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation. 2010;121:586-613.
4. Merz CNB, Alberts MJ, Balady GJ, Ballantyne CM, Berra K, Black HR, Blumenthal RS, Davidson MH, Fazio SB, Ferdinand KC, Fine LJ, Fonseca V, Franklin BA, McBride PE, Mensah GA, Merli GJ, O'Gara PT, Thompson PD, Underberg JA. ACCF/AHA/ACP 2009 competence and training statement: a curriculum on prevention of cardiovascular disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/ American Heart Association/American College of Physicians Task Force on Competence and Training (Writing Committee to Develop a Competence and Training Statement on Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease). J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:1336-1363.
5. Cannon CP, Shah S, Dansky HM, Davidson M, Brinton EA, Gotto AM Jr, Stepanavage M, Liu SX, Gibbons P, Ashraf TB, Zafarino J, Mitchel Y, Barter P; for the DEFINE Investigators. Safety of anacetrapib in patients with or at high risk for coronary heart disease [published online ahead of print November 17, 2010]. N Engl J Med. doi:10.1056/ NEJMoa1009744.
6. Yusuf S, Hawken S,Ô unpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, McQueen M, Budaj A, Pais P, Varigos J, Lisheng L; on behalf of the INTERHEART Study Investigators. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937-952. (Pubitemid 39208455)
7. Khot UN, Khot MB, Bajzer CT, Sapp SK, Ohman EM, Brener SJ, Ellis SG, Lincoff AM, Topol EJ. Prevalence of conventional risk factors in patients with coronary heart disease. JAMA. 2003;290:898-904. (Pubitemid 37430461)
8. Greenland P, Knoll MD, Stamler J, Neaton JD, Dyer AR, Garside DB, Wilson PW. Major risk factors as antecedents of fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease events. JAMA. 2003;290:891-897. (Pubitemid 37430460)
9. Lloyd-Jones DM, Leip EP, Larson MG, D'Agostino RB, Beiser A, Wilson PWF, Wolf PA, Levy D. Prediction of lifetime risk for cardiovascular disease by risk factor burden at 50 years of age. Circulation. 2006;113:791-798.
10. Canto JG, Iskandrian AE. Major risk factors for cardiovascular disease: debunking the "only 50%" myth. JAMA. 2003;290:947-949. (Pubitemid 37430468)
11. Kannel WB, Vasan RS. Adverse consequences of the 50% misconception. Am J Cardiol. 2009;103:426-427.
12. Iestra JA, Kromhout D, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE, Boshuizen HC, van Staveren WA. Effect size estimates of lifestyle and dietary changes on all-cause mortality in coronary artery disease patients: a systematic review. Circulation. 2005;112:924-934. (Pubitemid 41170081)
13. Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD; on behalf of the Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis [published online ahead of print November 1, 2010]. Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140- 6736(10)61462-6.
14. Allen NE, Beral V, Casabonne D, Kan SW, Reeves GK, Brown A, Green J; on behalf of the Million Women Study Collaborators. Moderate alcohol intake and cancer incidence in women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009;101:296-305.
15. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors. BMJ. 2004; 328:1519-1533.
16. Shah AM, Pfeffer MA, Hartley H, Moyé LA, Gersh BJ, Rutherford JD, Lamas GA, Rouleau JL, Braunwald E, Solomon SD. Risk of all-cause mortality, recurrent myocardial infarction, and heart failure hospitalization associated with smoking status following myocardial infarction with left ventricular dysfunction. Am J Cardiol. 2010;106:911-916.
17. Anthonisen NR, Skeans MA, Wise RA, Manfreda J, Kanner RE, Connett JE; for the Lung Health Study Research Group. The effects of a smoking cessation intervention on 14.5-year mortality: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Intern Med. 2005;142:233-239. (Pubitemid 40216240)
18. Schroeder SA, Warner KE. Don't forget tobacco [published online ahead of print on July 7, 2010]. N Engl J Med. doi:10.1056/ NEJMp1003883.
19. Heiss C, Amabile N, Lee AC, Real WM, Schick SF, Lao D, Wong ML, Jahn S, Angeli FS, Minasi P, Springer ML, Hammond SK, Glantz SA, Grossman W, Balmes JR, Yeghiazarians Y. Brief secondhand smoke exposure depresses endothelial progenitor cells activity and endothelial function. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;51:1760-1771.
20. Öberg M, Jaakkola MS, Woodward A, Peruga A, Prüss-Ustün A. Worldwide burden of disease from exposure to second-hand smoke: a retrospective analysis of data from 192 countries [published online ahead of print November 26, 2010]. Lancet. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61388-8.
21. Tuomilehto J, Lindström J, Eriksson JG, Valle TT, Hämäläinen H, Ilanne-Parikka P, Keinänen-Kiukaanniemi S, Laakso M, Louheranta A, Rastas M, Salminen V, Uusitupa M; for the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1343-1350. (Pubitemid 32378388)
22. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:393-403.
23. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study [published correction appears in Lancet. 2009;374: 2054]. Lancet. 2009;374:1677-1686.
24. Nathan DM. Navigating the choices for diabetes prevention. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1533-1535.
25. Figueredo VM. The time has come for physicians to take notice: the impact of psychosocial stressors on the heart. Am J Med. 2009;122: 704-712.
26. Rozanski A, Blumenthal JA, Kaplan J. Impact of psychological factors on the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and implications for therapy. Circulation. 1999;99:2192-2217. (Pubitemid 29196806)
27. Williams RB, Barefoot JC, Schneiderman N. Psychosocial risk factors for cardiovascular disease: more than one culprit at work. JAMA. 2003; 290:2190-2192. (Pubitemid 37432979)
28. Williams JE, Mosley TH Jr, Kop WJ, Couper DJ, Welch VL, Rosamond WD. Vital exhaustion as a risk factor for adverse cardiac events (from the Atherosclerosis Risk In Communities [ARIC] Study). Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:1661-1665.
29. Roest AM, Martens EJ, de Jonge P, Denollet J. Anxiety and risk of incident coronary heart disease: a meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:38-46.
30. Lichtman JH, Bigger JT, Blumenthal JA, Frasure-Smith N, Kaufmann PG, Lespérance F, Mark DB, Sheps DS, Taylor CB, Froelicher ES. Depression and coronary heart disease: recommendations for screening, referral, and treatment: a Science Advisory from the American Heart Association Prevention Committee of the Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, and Interdisciplinary Council on Quality of Care and Outcomes Research. Circulation. 2008;118:1768-1775.
31. Franklin BA. Impact of psychosocial risk factors on the heart: changing paradigms and perceptions. Phys Sportsmed. 2009;37:35-37.
32. Frasure-Smith N, Lespérance F, Gravel G, Masson A, Juneau M, Talajic M, Bourassa MG. Social support, depression, and mortality during the first year after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2000;101:1919-1924. (Pubitemid 30225272)
33. Ziegelstein RC, Fauerbach JA, Stevens SS, Romanelli J, Richter DP, Bush ED. Patients with depression are less likely to follow recommendations to reduce cardiac risk during recovery from a myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:1818-1823. (Pubitemid 30418820)
34. Moussavi S, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Tandon A, Patel V, Ustun B. Depression, chronic diseases, and decrements in health: results from the World Health Surveys. Lancet. 2007;370:851-858. (Pubitemid 47362344)
35. Homocysteine Studies Collaboration. Homocysteine and risk of ischemic heart disease and stroke: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2002;288: 2015-2022.
36. Albert CM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, Zaharris E, MacFadyen J, Danielson E, Buring JE, Mason JE. Effect of folic acid and B vitamins on risk of cardiovascular events and total mortality among women at high risk for cardiovascular disease: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008;299:2027-2036. (Pubitemid 351656584)
37. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) 2 Investigators. Homocysteine lowering with folic acid and B vitamins in vascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:1567-1577.
38. Bazzano LA, Reynolds K, Holder KN, He J. Effect of folic acid supplementation on risk of cardiovascular diseases: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2006;296:2720-2726. (Pubitemid 44917549)
39. Wald NJ, Law MR. A strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease by more by 80%. BMJ. 2003;326:1419-1423. (Pubitemid 36776151)
40. The Indian Polycap Study (TIPS). Effects of a polypill (Polycap) on risk factors in middle-aged individuals without cardiovascular disease (TIPS): a phase II, double-blind, randomized trial. Lancet. 2009;373: 1341-1351.
41. Malekzadeh F, Marshall T, Pourshams A, Gharravi M, Aslani A, Nateghi A, Rastegarpanah M, Khoshnia M, Semnani S, Salahi R, Thomas GN, Larijani B, Cheng KK, Malekzadeh R. A pilot double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial of the effects of fixed-dose combination therapy ('polypill') on cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Clin Pract. 2010;64:1220-1227.
42. Sdringola S, Nakagawa K, Nakagawa Y, Yusuf SW, Boccalandro F, Mullani N, Haynie M, Hess MJ, Gould KL. Combined intense lifestyle and pharmacologic lipid treatment further reduce coronary events and myocardial perfusion abnormalities compared with usual-care cholesterol-lowering drugs in coronary artery disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:263-272. (Pubitemid 36092195)
43. Chan SY, Mancini J, Burns S, Johnson FF, Brozic AP, Kingsbury K, Barr S, Kuramoto L, Schulzer M, Frolich J, Ignaszewski A. Dietary measures and exercise training contribute to improvement of endothelial function and atherosclerosis even in patients given intensive pharmacologic therapy. J Cardiopulm Rehabil. 2006;26:288-293. (Pubitemid 44465626)
44. Daubenmier J, Weidner G, Sumner M, Merritt-Worden T, Studley J, Ornish D. The contribution of changes in diet, exercise, and stress management to changes in coronary risk in women and men in the Multisite Cardiac Lifestyle Intervention Program. Ann Behav Med. 2007;33:57-68.
45. Franklin BA, Kahn JK, Gordon NF, Bonow RF. A cardioprotective "polypill"? Independent and additive benefits of lifestyle modification. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:162-166. (Pubitemid 38902862)
46. Forman JP, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC. Diet and lifestyle risk factors associated with incident hypertension in women. JAMA. 2009;302: 401-411.
47. Djoussé L, Driver JA, Gaziano JM. Relation between modifiable lifestyle factors and lifetime risk of heart failure. JAMA. 2009;302: 394-400.
48. Writing Group of the PREMIER Collaborative Research Group. Effects of comprehensive lifestyle modification on blood pressure control: main results of the PREMIER clinical trial. JAMA. 2003;289:2083-2093.
49. The Coronary Drug Project Research Group. Influence of adherence to treatment and response of cholesterol on mortality in the Coronary Drug Project. N Engl J Med. 1980;303:1038-1041.
50. Brook RD, Franklin B, Cascio W, Hong Y, Howard G, Lipsett M, Luepker R, Mittleman M, Samet J, Smith SC Jr, Tager I. Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2004;109:2655-2671. (Pubitemid 38720571)
51. Mills NL, Törnqvist H, Gonzalez MC, Vink E, Robinson SD, Söderberg S, Boon NA, Donaldson K, Sandström T, Blomberg A, Newby DE. Ischemic and thrombotic effects of dilute diesel-exhaust inhalation in men with coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1075-1082. (Pubitemid 47443212)
52. Verrier RL, Mittleman MA, Stone PA. Air pollution: an insidious and pervasive component of cardiac risk. Circulation. 2002;106:890-892. (Pubitemid 34925317)
53. Yancy WS, Westman EC, French PA, Califf RM. Diets and clinical coronary events: the truth is out there. Circulation. 2003;107:10-16. (Pubitemid 36070924)
54. Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Brands M, Carnethon M, Daniels S, Franch HA, Franklin B, Kris-Etherton P, Harris WS, Howard B, Karanja N, Lefevre M, Rudel L, Sacks F, Van Horn L, Winston M, Wylie-Rosett J. Summary of American Heart Association diet and lifestyle recommendations revision 2006. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2006;26: 2186-2191. (Pubitemid 44465710)
55. Brunner EJ, Mosdøl A, Witte DR, Martikainen P, Stafford M, Shipley MJ, Marmot MG. Dietary patterns and 15-y risks of major coronary events, diabetes, and mortality. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:1414-1421. (Pubitemid 351679785)
56. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS. A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:659-669.
57. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A, Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, Goldman L. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:590-599.
58. Psota TL, Gebauer SK, Kris-Etherton P. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake and cardiovascular risk. Am J Cardiol. 2006;98(suppl):3i-18i.
59. Shai I, Spence JD, Schwarzfuchs D, Henkin Y, Parraga G, Rudich A, Fenster A, Mallett C, Liel-Cohen N, Tirosh A, Bolotin A, Thiery J, Fiedler GM, Blüher M, Stumvoll M, Stampfer MJ; for the DIRECT Group. Dietary intervention to reverse carotid atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2010;121: 1200-1208.
60. Howard BV, Van Horn L, Hsia J, Manson JE, Stefanick ML, Wassertheil-Smoller S, Kuller LH, LaCroix AZ, Langer RD, Lasser NL, Lewis CE, Limacher MC, Margolis KL, Mysiw J, Ockene JK, Parker LM, Perri MG, Phillips L, Prentice RL, Robbins J, Rossouw JE, Sarto GE, Schatz IJ, Snetselaar LG, Stevens VJ, Tinker LF, Trevisan M, Vitolins MZ, Anderson GL, Assaf AR, Bassford T, Beresford SAA, Black HR, Brunner RL, Brzyski RG, Caan B, Chlebowski RT, Gass M, Granek I, Greenland P, Hays J, Heber D, Heiss G, Hendrix SL, Hubbell A, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM. Low-fat dietary pattern and risk of cardiovascular disease: the Women's Health Initiative Randomized Controlled Dietary Modification Trial. JAMA. 2006;295:655-666. (Pubitemid 43209067)
61. Suaya JA, Stason WB, Ades PA, Normand S-LT, Shepard DS. Cardiac rehabilitation and survival in older coronary patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2009;54:25-33.
62. Hammill BG, Curtis LH, Schulman KA, Whellan DJ. Relationship between cardiac rehabilitation and long-term risks of death and myocardial infarction among elderly Medicare beneficiaries. Circulation. 2010;121:63-70.
63. Taylor RS, Brown A, Ebrahim S, Jolliffe J, Noorani H, Rees K, Skidmore B, Stone JA, Thompson DR, Oldridge N. Exercise-based rehabilitation for patients with coronary heart disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Am J Med. 2004;116: 682-692. (Pubitemid 38581114)
64. LeLorier J, Grégoire G, Benhaddad A, Lapierre J, Derderian F. Discrepancies between meta-analyses and subsequent large randomized, controlled trials. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:536-542. (Pubitemid 27352021)
65. Hennekens CH, DeMets D. The need for large-scale randomized evidence without undue emphasis on small trials, meta-analyses, or subgroup analyses. JAMA. 2009;302:2361-2362.
66. Suaya JA, Shepard DS, Normand ST, Ades PA, Prottas J, Stason WB. Use of cardiac rehabilitation by Medicare beneficiaries after myocardial infarction or coronary bypass surgery. Circulation. 2007;116: 1653-1662. (Pubitemid 47537840)
67. Mukherjee D, Fang J, Chetcuti S, Moscucci M, Kline-Rogers, Eagle KA. Impact of combination evidence-based medical therapy on mortality in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2004;109: 745-749. (Pubitemid 38222894)
68. Chow CK, Jolly S, Rao-Melacini P, Fox KAA, Anand SS, Yusuf S. Association of diet, exercise, and smoking modification with risk of early cardiovascular events after acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2010;121:750-758.
69. Nocon M, Hiemann T, Müller-Riemenschneider F, Thalau F, Roll S, Willich SN. Association of physical activity with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2008;15:239-246.
70. Franklin BA, Gordon NF. Contemporary Diagnosis and Management in Cardiovascular Exercise. Newtown, PA: Handbooks in Health Care Co; 2009.
71. Kodama S, Aaito K, Tanaka S, Maki M, Yachi Y, Asumi M, Sugawara A, Totsuka K, Shimano H, Ohashi Y, Yamada N, Sone H. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women. JAMA. 2009;301: 2024-2035.
72. Dutcher JR, Kahn J, Grines C, Franklin B. Comparison of left ventricular ejection fraction and exercise capacity as predictors of two-and five-year mortality following acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:436-441. (Pubitemid 46215542)
73. Thompson PD, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Blair SN, Corrado D, Estes NAM III, Fulton JE, Gordon NF, Haskell WL, Link MS, Maron BJ, Mittleman MA, Pelliccia A, Wenger NK, Willich SN, Costa F. Exercise and acute cardiovascular events: placing the risks into perspective. Circulation. 2007;115:2358-2368.
74. Franklin BA, McCullough PA. Cardiorespiratory fitness: an independent and additive marker of risk stratification and health outcomes. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:776-779.
75. Eckel RH, Krauss RM. American Heart Association call to action: obesity as a major risk factor for coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1998;97:2099-2100. (Pubitemid 28262114)
76. Jensen M, Chiuve SE, Rimm EB, Dethlefsen C, Tjønneland A, Joensen AM, Overvad K. Obesity, behavioral lifestyle factors, and risk of acute coronary events. Circulation. 2008;117:3062-3069.
77. Arnlov J, Ingelsson E, Sundström J, Lind L. Impact of body mass index and the metabolic syndrome on the risk of cardiovascular disease and death in middle-aged men. Circulation. 2010;121:230-236.
78. Suwaidi JA, Wright RS, Grill JP, Hensrud DD, Murphy JG, Squires RW, Kopecky SL. Obesity is associated with premature occurrence of acute myocardial infarction. Clin Cardiol. 2001;24:542-547. (Pubitemid 32726971)
79. Madala MC, Franklin BA, Chen AY, Berman AD, Roe MT, Peterson ED, Ohman EM, Smith SC Jr, Gibler WB, McCullough PA; for the CRUSADE Investigators. Obesity and age of first non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52:979-985.
80. Romero-Corral A, Montori VM, Somers VK, Korinek J, Thomas RJ, Allison TG, Mookadam F, Lopez-Jimenez F. Association of body weight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: a systemic review of cohort studies. Lancet. 2006;368: 666-678. (Pubitemid 44223694)
81. Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Artham SM, Patel DA, Ventura HO. The obesity paradox, weight loss, and coronary disease. Am J Med. 2009;122: 1106-1114.
82. Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH. Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA. 2005;293: 1861-1867. (Pubitemid 40548182)
83. Benderly M, Boyko V, Goldbourt U. Relation of body mass index to mortality among men with coronary heart disease. Am J Cardiol. 2010; 106:297-304.
84. Jacobs EJ, Newton CC, Wang Y, Patel AV, McCullough ML, Campbell PT, Thun MJ, Gapstur SM. Waist circumference and all-cause mortality in a large US cohort. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1293-1301.
85. Ross R. Atherosclerosis: an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999; 340:115-126.
86. Greenland P, Alpert JS, Beller GA, Benjamin EJ, Budoff MJ, Fayad Z, Foster E, Hlatky MA, Hodgson JM, Kushner FG, Lauer MS, Shaw LJ, Smith SC Jr, Taylor AJ, Weintraub WS, Wenger NK. 2010 ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in asymptomatic adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines [published online ahead of print November 15, 2010]. J Am Coll Cardiol. doi:10.1016/ j.jacc.2010.09.001.
87. Roberts WC. It's the cholesterol, stupid! Am J Cardiol. 2010;106: 1364-1366.
88. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FAH, Genest J, Gotto AM Jr, Kastelein JJP, Koenig W, Libby P, Lorenzatti AJ, MacFadyen JG, Nordestgaard BG, Shepherd J, Willerson JT, Glynn RJ; for the JUPITER Group. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195-2207.
89. Cushman M, McClure L, Lakoski S, Jenny NS. Eligibility for statin therapy by the JUPITER criteria and subsequent mortality: the REGARDS cohort. Am J Cardiol. 2010;105:77-81.
90. Kappagoda CT, Amsterdam EA. Another look at the results of the JUPITER trial. Am J Cardiol. 2009;104:1603-1605.
91. Keeley EC, Boura JA, Grines CL. Primary angioplasty versus intravenous thrombolytic therapy for acute myocardial infarction: a quantitative review of 23 randomised trials. Lancet. 2003;361:13-20. (Pubitemid 36050955)
92. Henderson RA, Pocock SJ, Clayton TC, Knight R, Fox KAA, Julian DG, Chamberlain DA; for the Second Randomized Intervention Treatment of Angina (RITA-2) Trial Participants. Seven-year outcome in the RITA-2 trial: coronary angioplasty versus medical therapy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;42:1161-1170. (Pubitemid 37188334)
93. Pitt B, Waters D, Brown WV, van Boven AJ, Schwartz L, Title LM, Eisenberg D, Shurzinske L, McCormick LS; for the Atorvastatin versus Revascularization Treatment Investigators. Aggressive lipid-lowering therapy compared with angioplasty in stable coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:70-76. (Pubitemid 29314237)
94. Hambrecht R, Walther C, Möbius-Winkler S, Gielen S, Linke A, Conradi K, Erbs S, Kluge R, Kendziorra K, Sabri O, Sick P, Schuler G. Percutaneous coronary angioplasty compared with exercise training in patients with stable coronary artery disease: a randomized trial. Circulation. 2004;109:1371-1378. (Pubitemid 38387823)
95. Green DJ, O'Driscoll G, Joyner MJ, Cable NT. Exercise and cardiovascular risk reduction: time to update the rationale for exercise? J Appl Physiol. 2008;105:766-768.
96. Katritsis DG, Ioannidis JPA. Percutaneous coronary intervention versus conservative therapy in nonacute coronary artery disease: a meta-analysis. Circulation. 2005;111:2906-2912. (Pubitemid 40823048)
97. Boden WE, O'Rourke RA, Teo KK, Hartigan PM, Maron DJ, Kostuk WJ, Knudtson M, Dada M, Casperson P, Harris CL, Chaitman BR, Shaw L, Gosselin G, Nawaz S, Title LM, Gau G, Blaustein AS, Booth DC, Bates ER, Spertus JA, Berman DS, Mancini GBJ, Weintraub WS; for the COURAGE Trial Research Group. Optimal medical therapy with or without PCI for stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356: 1503-1516. (Pubitemid 46588415)
98. The BARI 2D Study Group. A randomized trial of therapies for type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2009;360: 2503-2515.
99. Chopra D, Ornish D, Roy R, Weil A. 'Alternative' medicine is mainstream. Wall Street Journal. January 9, 2009:A13.
100. Franklin BA. Physical activity to combat chronic diseases and escalating health care costs: the unfilled prescription. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2008; 7:122-125.
101. Schroeder ST. We can do better: improving the health of the American people. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1221-1228.
102. Murray CJL, Frenk J. Ranking 37th: measuring the performance of the U.S. health care system. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:98-99.
103. Reeves MJ, Rafferty AP. Healthy lifestyle characteristics among adults in the United States, 2000. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:854-857. (Pubitemid 40563230)
104. Ard J, Butsch S, Howard VJ, Michael M, Croft J, Howard G. The national prevalence of healthy lifestyles is low and varies by race and geographic region. Circulation. 2007;115:e280. Abstract.
105. Vogel JA, Franklin BA, Zalesin KC, Trivax JE, Krause KR, Chengelis DL, McCullough PA. Reduction in predicted coronary heart disease risk after substantial weight reduction after bariatric surgery. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:222-226. (Pubitemid 46072757)
106. Sjöström L, Narbro K, Sjöström D, Karason K, Larsson B, Wedel H, Lystig T, Sullivan M, Bouchard C, Carlsson B, Bengtsson C, Dahlgren S, Gummesson A, Jacobson P, Karlsson J, Lindroos A-K, Lönroth H, Näslund I, Olbers T, Stenlöf K, Torgerson J, Ågren G, Carlsson LMS; for the Swedish Obese Subjects Study. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:741-752. (Pubitemid 47295641)
107. Dixon JB, O'Brien PE, Playfair J, Chapman L, Schachter LM, Skinner S, Proietto J, Bailey M, Anderson M. Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2008;299:316-323. (Pubitemid 351159368)
108. Bartecchi C, Alsever RN, Nevin-Woods C, Thomas WM, Estacio RO, Bartelson BB, Krantz MJ. Reduction in the incidence of acute myocardial infarction associated with a citywide smoking ordinance. Circulation. 2006;114:1490-1496. (Pubitemid 44527004)
109. Pell JP, Haw S, Cobbe S, Newby DE, Pell ACH, Fischbacher C, McConnachie A, Pringle S, Murdoch D, Dunn F, Oldroyd K, MacIntyre P, O'Rourke B, Borland W. Smoke-free legislation and hospitalizations for acute coronary syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:482-491.