A perspective on SIDS pathogenesis. The hypotheses: plausibility and evidence

BMC Medicine

Volumn 9, Issue , 2011, Pages

  Goldwater, Paul N ^a,b  

^a WOMEN S AND CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACTERIAL TOXIN; COCAINE; DIAMORPHINE; TOBACCO SMOKE; TOXIC GAS;

AIRWAY; AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANAPHYLAXIS; ANEMIA; APNEA; ARTICLE; ASPHYXIA; BACTERIAL INFECTION; BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND FUNCTIONS CONCERNING ORGAN SYSTEMS; BLADDER EMPTYING; BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOT; BODY POSITION; BRAIN DISEASE; BRAIN STEM; CARDIOGENIC SHOCK; CARDIORESPIRATORY FUNCTION; CHILD ABUSE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COPY NUMBER VARIATION; DEMOGRAPHY; DIAPHRAGM; ENCEPHALOMEGALY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLOITATION; ESCHERICHIA COLI; ETHNICITY; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC REGULATION; HEART; HEART DISEASE; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; HYPOXIA; INFANT; INFLAMMATORY CELL; INTRATHORACIC PETECHIAL HAEMORRHAGE; LARYNGEAL BASEMENT MEMBRANE THICKENING; LARYNX DISORDER; LONG QT SYNDROME; LOW BIRTH WEIGHT; LUNG; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MATERNAL SMOKING; MICROCARDIA; OBESITY; ORGAN WEIGHT; PATHOGENESIS; PREMATURITY; PRENATAL CARE; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRONE SLEEP POSITION; PUERPERIUM; REBREATHING; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; ROOM TEMPERATURE; SEASONAL VARIATION; SOCIAL STATUS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME; THYMUS DISEASE; THYMUS ENLARGEMENT; VIRUS INFECTION; MEDICAL RESEARCH; NEWBORN; PATHOLOGY; REVIEW;

BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; RISK FACTORS; SUDDEN INFANT DEATH;

EID: 79957500318     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17417015     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-9-64     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. Beckwith JB. Observations on the pathologic anatomy of the sudden infant death syndrome. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 1970, 83. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, Bergman AB, Beckwith JB, Ray CG.
2. Kinney HC, Filiano JJ, Harper RM. The neuropathology of the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neuropathol Exper Neurol 1992, 51:115-126.
3. Bergman AB. Synthesis. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 1970, 210-211. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, Bergman AB, Beckwith JB, Ray CG.
4. Wedgwood RJ. Review of USA experience. Sudden and Unexpected Death in Infancy (Cot Deaths) 1972, 28. Bristol, England: Wright, Camps FE, Carpenter RG.
5. Raring RH. Crib Death: Scourge of Infants--Shame of Society 1975, 93-97. Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press.
6. Rognum TO, Saugstad OD. Biochemical and immunological studies in SIDS victims. Clues to understanding the death mechanism. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1993, 82(Suppl 389):82-85.
7. Filiano JJ, Kinney HC. A perspective on neuropathologic findings in victims of the sudden infant death syndrome: The triple-risk model. Biol Neonate 1994, 65:194-197. 10.1159/000244052, 8038282.
8. NICHD Targeting Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS): A Strategic Plan. 2001, NICHD., http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/upload/SIDS_Syndrome.pdf
9. Naeye RL. Brain-stem and adrenal abnormalities in the SIDS. Am J Clin Pathol 1976, 66:526-530.
10. Kinney HC, Burger PC, Harrell FE, Hudson RP. "Reactive gliosis" in the medulla oblongata of victims of the SIDS. Pediatrics 1983, 72:181-187.
11. Kinney HC, Filiano JJ, Sleeper LA, Mandell F, Valdes-Dapena M, White WF. Decreased muscarinic receptor binding in the arcuate nucleus in sudden infant death syndrome. Science 1995, 269:1446-1450. 10.1126/science.7660131, 7660131.
12. Kinney HC, Filiano JJ, White WF. Medullary serotonergic network deficiency in the sudden infant death syndrome: review of a 15-year study of a single database. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001, 60:228-247.
13. Ambler MW, Neave C, Sturner WQ. Sudden and unexpected death in infancy and childhood: Neuropathological findings. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1981, 2:23-30. 10.1097/00000433-198103000-00005, 7304517.
14. Guntheroth WG, Spiers PS. The triple risk hypotheses in sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatrics 2002, 110:e64. 10.1542/peds.110.5.e64, 12415070.
15. Morris JA. The common bacterial toxins hypothesis of sudden infant death syndrome. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999, 25:11-17. 10.1111/j.1574-695X.1999.tb01322.x, 10443487.
16. Goldwater PN. Sudden infant death syndrome: A critical review of approaches to research. Arch Dis Child 2003, 88:1095-1100. 10.1136/adc.88.12.1095, 1719412, 14670779.
17. Blackwell CC, Gordon AE, James VS, MacKenzie DA, Mogensen-Buchanan M, El Ahmer OR, Al Madani OM, Törö K, Csukás Z, Sótonyi P, Weir DM, Busuttil A. The role of bacterial toxins in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Int J Med Microbiol 2002, 291:561-570.
18. Blackwell CC, Moscovis SM, Gordon AE, Al Madani OM, Hall ST, Gleeson M, Scott RJ, Roberts-Thomson J, Weir DM, Busuttil A. Ethnicity, infection and sudden infant death syndrome. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2004, 42:53-65. 10.1016/j.femsim.2004.06.007, 15325398.
19. Blackwell CC, Moscovis SM, Gordon AE, Al Madani OM, Hall ST, Gleeson M, Scott RJ, Roberts-Thomson J, Weir DM, Busuttil A. Cytokine responses and sudden infant death syndrome: genetic, developmental, and environmental risk factors. J Leukoc Biol 2005, 78:1242-1254. 10.1189/jlb.0505253, 16204631.
20. Sayers NM, Drucker DB, Morris JA, Telford DR. Lethal synergy between toxins of staphylococci and enterobacteria: implications for sudden infant death syndrome. J Clin Pathol 1995, 48:929-932. 10.1136/jcp.48.10.929, 502949, 8537492.
21. Malam JE, Carrick GF, Telford DR, Morris JA. Staphylococcal toxins and sudden infant death syndrome. J Clin Pathol 1992, 45:716-721. 10.1136/jcp.45.8.716, 495153, 1401186.
22. Jakeman KJ, Rushton DI, Smith H, Sweet C. Exacerbation of bacterial toxicity to infant ferrets by influenza virus: possible role in sudden infant death syndrome. J Infect Dis 1991, 163:35-40. Erratum in: J Infect Dis 1991, 164:232, 10.1093/infdis/163.1.35, 1984474.
23. Bettelheim KA, Goldwater PN, Dwyer BW, Bourne AJ, Smith DL. Toxigenic Escherichia coli associated with sudden infant death syndrome. Scand J Infect Dis 1990, 22:467-476. 10.3109/00365549009027079, 2218409.
24. Pearce JL, Luke RK, Bettelheim KA. Extraintestinal Escherichia coli isolations from SIDS cases and other cases of sudden death in Victoria, Australia. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999, 25:137-144. 10.1111/j.1574-695X.1999.tb01337.x, 10443502.
25. Pearce JL, Luke RK, Bettelheim KA, Pearce JL, Luke RK, Bettelheim KA. Sudden infant death syndrome: what questions should we ask?. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 1999, 25:7-10. 10.1111/j.1574-695X.1999.tb01321.x, 10443486.
26. Pearce JL, Bettelheim KA, Luke RK, Goldwater PN. Serotypes of Escherichia coli in sudden infant death syndrome. J Appl Microbiol 2010, 108:731-735. 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04473.x, 19674183.
27. Murrell WG, Stewart BJ, O'Neill C, Siarakas S, Kariks S. Enterotoxigenic bacteria in the sudden infant death syndrome. J Med Microbiol 1993, 39:114-127. 10.1099/00222615-39-2-114, 8345506.
28. Goldwater PN. Sterile site infection at autopsy in sudden unexpected deaths in infancy. Arch Dis Child 2009, 94:303-307.
29. Goldwater PN, Highet AR. Staphylococcal enterotoxin genes are common in Staphylococcus aureus intestinal flora in Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) and live comparison infants. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2009, 57:151-155. 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2009.00592.x, 19702876.
30. Highet AR, Berry AM, Goldwater PN. Novel hypothesis for unexplained sudden unexpected death in infancy (SUDI). Arch Dis Child 2009, 94:841-843. 10.1136/adc.2009.158352, 19414432.
31. Highet AR, Berry AM, Bettelheim KA, Goldwater PN. The frequency of molecular detection of virulence genes encoding cytolysin A, high-pathogenicity island and cytolethal distending toxin of Escherichia coli in cases of sudden infant death syndrome does not differ from that in other infant deaths and healthy infants. J Med Microbiol 2009, 58:285-289. 10.1099/jmm.0.005322-0, 19208875.
32. Highet AR, Berry AM, Goldwater PN. Novel hypothesis for unexplained Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy (SUDI). Arch Dis Child 2009, 94:841-843. 10.1136/adc.2009.158352, 19414432.
33. Weber MA, Klein NJ, Hartley JC, Lock PE, Malone M, Sebire NJ. Infection and Sudden Unexpected Death in Infancy: a systematic retrospective case review. Lancet 2008, 371:1848-1853. 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60798-9, 18514728.
34. Kuppermann N. Occult bacteremia in young febrile children. Pediatr Clin North Am 1999, 46:1073-1109. 10.1016/S0031-3955(05)70176-0, 10629675.
35. Poets CF, Meny RG, Chobanian MR, Bonofiglo RE. Gasping and other cardiorespiratory patterns during sudden infant deaths. Pediatr Res 1999, 45:350-354. 10.1203/00006450-199903000-00010, 10088653.
36. Poets CF. Status thymico-lymphaticus, apnea, and sudden infant death--lessons learned from the past?. Eur J Pediatr 1996, 155:165-167. 10.1007/BF01953930, 8929720.
37. Matthews T. Sudden infant death syndrome--a defect in circulatory control?. Child Care Health Dev 2002, 28(Suppl 1):41-43.
38. Buckley MG, Variend S, Walls AF. Elevated serum concentrations of beta-tryptase, but not alpha-tryptase, in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). An investigation of anaphylactic mechanisms. Clin Exp Allergy 2001, 31:1696-1704. 10.1046/j.1365-2222.2001.01213.x, 11696045.
39. Parish WE, Richards CB, France NE, Coombs RR. Further investigations on the hypothesis that some cases of cot-death are due to a modified anaphylactic reaction to cow's milk. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1964, 24:215-243. 10.1159/000229462, 14165120.
40. Fleming PJ, Azaz Y, Wigfield R. Development of thermoregulation in infancy: possible implications for SIDS. J Clin Pathol 1992, 45(Suppl):17-19.
41. Williams SM, Taylor BJ, Mitchell EA. Sudden infant death syndrome: insulation from bedding and clothing and its effect modifiers. The National Cot Death Study Group. Int J Epidemiol 1996, 25:366-375. 10.1093/ije/25.2.366, 9119562.
42. Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T, Kasl SV, Cochrane JA. The Tasmanian SIDS Case-Control Study: univariable and multivariable risk factor analysis. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1995, 9:256-272. 10.1111/j.1365-3016.1995.tb00141.x, 7479275.
43. Guntheroth WG, Spiers PS. Thermal stress in sudden infant death: Is there an ambiguity with the rebreathing hypothesis?. Pediatrics 2001, 107:693-698. 10.1542/peds.107.4.693, 11335746.
44. Kemp JS, Nelson VE, Thach BT. Physical properties of bedding that may increase risk of sudden infant death syndrome in prone-sleeping infants. Pediatr Res 1994, 36:7-11.
45. Kemp JS. Rebreathing of exhaled gases: importance as a mechanism for the causal association between prone sleep and sudden infant death syndrome. Sleep 1996, 19:S263-266.
46. Richardson BA. Cot mattress biodeterioration and SIDS. Lancet 1990, 335:670.
47. Reece RM. Fatal child abuse and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: a critical diagnostic decision. Pediatrics 1993, 91:423-429.
48. Hunt CE. Impaired arousal from sleep: relationship to sudden infant death syndrome. J Perinatol 1989, 9:184-187.
49. Krous HF. Sudden infant death syndrome: pathology and pathophysiology. Pathol Annu 1984, 19:1-14.
50. Tonkin SL, Gunn TR, Bennet L, Vogel SA, Gunn AJ. A review of the anatomy of the upper airway in early infancy and its possible relevance to SIDS. Early Hum Dev 2002, 66:107-121. 10.1016/S0378-3782(01)00242-0, 11872315.
51. Stephens RE, Bancroft A, Glaros MG, Lowe L. Anatomic changes related to laryngeal descent from birth to 1 year of age: Do they play a role in SIDS?. Ear Nose Throat J 2010, 89:313-317.
52. Valdes-Dapena M. The sudden infant death syndrome: pathologic findings. Clin Perinatol 1992, 19:701-716.
53. Kelmanson IA. Differences in somatic and organ growth rates in infants who died of sudden infant death syndrome. J Perinat Med 1992, 20:183-188. 10.1515/jpme.1992.20.3.183, 1453291.
54. Hinchliffe SA, Howard CV, Lynch MRJ, Sargent PH, Judd BA, van Velzen D. Renal developmental arrest in sudden infant death syndrome. Fetal Pediatr Pathol 1993, 13:333-343.
55. Williams AL. Sudden infant death syndrome. Aust NZ J Obstet Gynaecol 1990, 30:98-107.
56. Krous HF. Pathological considerations of sudden infant death syndrome. Int J Child Adolescent Health 1988, 15:231-239.
57. Krous HF, Beckwith JB, Byard RW, Rognum TO, Bajanowski T, Corey T, Cutz E, Hanzlick R, Keens TG, Mitchell EA. Sudden infant death syndrome and unclassified sudden infant deaths: a definitional and diagnostic approach. Pediatrics 2004, 114:234-238. 10.1542/peds.114.1.234, 15231934.
58. Haas JE, Taylor JA, Bergman AB, van Belle G, Felgenhauer JL, Siebert JR, Benjamin DR. Relationship between epidemiologic risk factors and clinicopathologic findings in SIDS. Pediatrics 1993, 91:106-112.
59. Hilton JMN. The pathology of sudden infant death syndrome. Paediatric Forensic Medicine and Pathology 1998, 156-164. London: Chapman & Hall Medical, Mason JK.
60. Byard RW, Krous HF. Specific Pathologic problems and possible solutions. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: Problems, Progress and Possibilities 2001, 230-231. London: Hodder Arnold, Byard RW, Krouse HF.
61. Goldwater PN. Intrathoracic Petechial Haemorrhages in sudden infant death syndrome and other infant deaths: Time for re-examination?. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2008, 11:450-455. 10.2350/08-01-0404.1, 18416633.
62. Kleemann WJ, Wiechern V, Schuck M, Troger HD. Intrathoracic and subconjunctival petechiae in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Forens Sci Int 1995, 72:49-54.
63. Machaalani R, Waters KA. Neuronal cell death in the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome brainstem and associations with risk factors. Brain 2008, 131:218-228.
64. Becroft DM, Thompson JM, Mitchell EA. Epidemiology of intrathoracic petechial hemorrhages in sudden infant death syndrome. Pediatr Dev Path 1998, 1:200-209.
65. Krous HF, Nadeau JM, Silva PD, Blackbourne BD. Intrathoracic petechiae in sudden infant death syndrome: relationship to face position when found. Pediatr Dev Pathol 2001, 4:160-166. 10.1007/s100240010137, 11178632.
66. Beckwith JB. Observations of the pathological anatomy of the Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Causes of Sudden Death in Infants; Seattle 1970, 132. Seattle: University of Washington Press, Bergman AB, Beckwith JB, Ray CG.
67. Risse M, Weiler G. Differential diagnosis of SIDS/non-SIDS on the basis of histological findings of petechial hemorrhages. Forensic Sci Int 1989, 43:1-7. 10.1016/0379-0738(89)90115-1, 2591840.
68. Krous HF, Jordan JA. Necropsy study of the distribution of petechiae in non-sudden infant death syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1984, 108:75-76.
69. Charriaut-Marlangue C, Ben-Ari Y. A cautionary note on the use of the TUNEL stain to determine apoptosis. Neuroreport 1995, 7:61-64.
70. Handforth PC. Sudden unexpected death in infants. Can Med Assoc J 1959, 80:872-873. 1831069, 13662938.
71. Guntheroth WG, Kawabori I, Breazeale DG, Garlinghouse LE, Van Hoosier GL. The role of respiratory infection in intrathoracic petechiae. Implications for sudden infant death. Am J Dis Child 1980, 134:364-366.
72. Krous HF, Haas EA, Chadwick AE, Masoumi H, Stanley C. Intrathoracic petechiae in SIDS: a retrospective population-based 15-year study. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2008, 4:234-239. 10.1007/s12024-008-9054-8, 19291444.
73. Sidebotham P, Fleming P. Unexpected Death in Childhood: A Handbook for Practitioners 2008, London: Wiley.
74. Little BB. Gestation length, metabolic rate, and body and brain weights in primates: epigenetic effects. Am J Phys Anthropol 1989, 80:213-218. 10.1002/ajpa.1330800209, 2801913.
75. Little BB, Kemp PM, Bost RO, Snell LM, Peterman MA. Abnormal allometric size of vital body organs among sudden infant death syndrome victims. Am J Hum Biol 2000, 12:382-387. 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6300(200005/06)12:3<382::AID-AJHB8>3.0.CO;2-A, 11534028.
76. Reiss M. The allometry of growth and reproduction 1991, 182. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
77. Naeye RL, Whalen P, Ryser M, Fisher R. Cardiac and other abnormalities in the sudden infant death syndrome. Am J Pathol 1976, 82:1-8. 2032266, 1247080.
78. Falck G, Rajs J. Brain weight and sudden infant death syndrome. J Child Neurol 1995, 10:123-126. 10.1177/088307389501000212, 7782602.
79. Fracasso T, Vennemann M, Pfeiffer H, Bajanowski T. Organ weights in cases of sudden infant death syndrome. A German study. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 2009, 30:231-234. 10.1097/PAF.0b013e318187e0f2, 19696576.
80. Goldwater PN, Little BB. SIDS: Organ weights and pathophysiology. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2009, 5:138. Presented at SIDS 10th International Conference, Portsmouth, UK, 23-26 June 2008.
81. Kadhim H, Sébire G, Khalifa M, Evrard P, Groswasser J, Franco P, Kahn A. Incongruent cerebral growth in sudden infant death syndrome. J Child Neurol 2005, 20:244-246.
82. Kadhim H, Deltenre P, De Prez C, Sébire G. Interleukin-2 as a neuromodulator possibly implicated in the physiopathology of sudden infant death syndrome. Neurosci Lett 2010, 480:122-126. 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.021, 20542085.
83. Obonai T, Takashima S. In utero brain lesions in SIDS. Pediatr Neurol 1998, 19:23-25. 10.1016/S0887-8994(98)00008-3, 9682880.
84. Kariks J. Cardiac lesions in sudden infant death syndrome. Forensic Sci Int 1988, 39:211-225. 10.1016/0379-0738(88)90124-7, 3229703.
85. Kariks J. Is shock the mode of death in SIDS?. Med Hypotheses 1985, 18:331-349. 10.1016/0306-9877(85)90102-1, 3854163.
86. Goldwater PN, Williams V, Bourne AJ, Byard RW. Sudden infant death syndrome: a possible clue to causation. Med J Australia 1990, 153:59-60.
87. Shatz A, Arensburg B, Hiss Y, Hammel I, Variend S. Age-related basement membrane thickening of the vocal cords in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Laryngoscope 1994, 104:865-868.
88. Krous HF, Hauck FR, Herman Stanislaw M, Valdes-Dapena M, McClatchey KD, Filkins James A, Hoffman HJ. Laryngeal basement membrane thickening is not a reliable postmortem marker for SIDS: results from the Chicago Infant Mortality Study. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1999, 20:221-227. 10.1097/00000433-199909000-00001, 10507787.
89. Rambaud C, Guilleminault C, Campbell PE. Definition of the sudden infant death syndrome. BMJ 1994, 308:1439. 2540385, 8019269.
90. Krous HF, Ferandos C, Masoumi H, Arnold J, Haas EA, Stanley C, Grossfeld PD. Myocardial inflammation, cellular death, and viral detection in sudden infant death caused by SIDS, suffocation, or myocarditis. Pediatr Res 2009, 66:17-21. 10.1203/PDR.0b013e3181a290a7, 19287341.
91. Dettmeyer R, Bruch S, Haag C. Letter to editor. Pediatric Res 2009, 66:714.
92. Dettmeyer R, Baasner A, Haag C, Bruch S, Schlamann M. Immunohistochemical and molecular-pathological diagnosis of myocarditis in cases of suspected sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) - a multicenter study. Legal Med 2009, 11:S124-S127.
93. Panigrahy A, Filiano JJ, Sleeper LA, Mandell F, Valdes-Depena M, Krous HF, Rava LA, White WF, Kinney HC. Decreased kainate receptor binding in the arcuate nucleus of the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neurophysiol Exp Neurol 1997, 56:1253-1261.
94. Harper RM, Kinney HC, Fleming PJ, Thach BT. Sleep influences on homeostatic functions: implications for sudden infant death syndrome. Respir Physiol 2000, 119:123-132. 10.1016/S0034-5687(99)00107-3, 10722855.
95. Kinney HC, Panigrahy A, Filiano JJ, Sleeper LA, White WF. Brain stem serotonergic receptor binding in the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2000, 59:377-384.
96. Panigrahy A, Filiano JJ, Sleeper LA, Mandell F, Valdes-Depena M, Krous HF, Rava LA, White WF, Kinney HC. Decreased kainate receptor binding in the arcuate nucleus of the sudden infant death syndrome. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1997, 56:1173-1262. 10.1097/00005072-199711000-00001, 9370227.
97. Baird TM. Clinical correlates, natural history and outcome of neonatal apnea. Semin in Neonatal Med 2004, 9:205-211.
98. Kinney HC, Thach BT. Sudden infant death syndrome. N Engl J Med 2009, 361:795-805. 10.1056/NEJMra0803836, 19692691.
99. Machaalani R, Waters KA. Increased neuronal cell death after intermittent hypercapnic hypoxia in the developing piglet brainstem. Brain Res 2003, 985:127-134. 10.1016/S0006-8993(03)03003-8, 12967716.
100. Kelly DH, Pathak A, Meny R. Sudden severe bradycardia in infancy. Pediatr Pulmonol 1991, 10:199-204. 10.1002/ppul.1950100312, 1852519.
101. Meny RG, Carroll JL, Carbone MT, Kelly DH. Cardiorespiratory recordings from infants dying suddenly and unexpectedly at home. Pediatrics 1994, 93:44-49.
102. Poets CF, Southall DP. Prone sleeping position and sudden infant death. N Engl J Med 1993, 329:425-426. 10.1056/NEJM199308053290610, 8326978.
103. Poets CF, Samuels MP, Noyes JP, Hewertson J, Hartmann H, Holder A, Southall DP. Home event recordings of oxygenation, breathing movements and electrocardiogram in infants and young children with recurrent apparent life-threatening events. J Pediatr 1993, 123:693-701. 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)80842-X, 8229476.
104. Baird T. Clinical correlates, natural history and outcome of neonatal apnea. Semin Neonatol 2004, 9:205-211. 10.1016/j.siny.2003.11.007, 15050213.
105. Bentele KHP, Albani M. Are there tests predictive for prolonged apnea and SIDS? A review of epidemiological and functionai studies. Acta Paediatrica 2008, 77:1-21.
106. Farrell PA, Weiner GM, Lemons JA. SIDS, ALTE, apnea, and the use of home monitors. Pediatr Rev 2002, 23:3-9. 10.1542/pir.23-1-3, 11773587.
107. Ramanathan R, Corwin MJ, Hunt CE, Lister G, Tinsley LR, Baird T, Silvestri JM, Crowell DH, Hufford D, Martin RJ, Neuman MR, Weese-Mayer DE, Cupples LA, Peucker M, Willinger M, Keens TG, . Collaborative Home Infant Monitoring Evaluation (CHIME) Study Group Cardiorespiratory events recorded on home monitors: comparison of healthy infants with those at increased risk for SIDS. JAMA 2001, 285:2199-2207. 10.1001/jama.285.17.2199, 11325321, Collaborative Home Infant Monitoring Evaluation (CHIME) Study Group.
108. Galland BC, Taylor BJ, Bolton DPG. Prone versus supine sleep position: a review of the physiological studies in SIDS research. J Paediatr Child Health 2002, 38:332-333. 10.1046/j.1440-1754.2002.00002.x, 12173990.
109. Siren PMA, Siren MJ. Critical diaphragm failure in sudden infant death syndrome. Ups J Med Sci 2011, 116:115-123. 10.3109/03009734.2010.548011, 3078540, 21222555.
110. Sturmer WQ, Lynch HJ, Deng MH, Gleason RE, Wurtman RJ. Melatonin concentrations in the sudden infant death syndrome. Forensic Sci Int 1990, 45:171-180. 10.1016/0379-0738(90)90234-P, 2335331.
111. Naeye RL. Hypoxaemia and the sudden infant death syndrome. Science 1974, 186:837-838. 10.1126/science.186.4166.837, 4469684.
112. Valdes-Dapena M. The pathologist and the sudden infant death syndrome. Am J Pathol 1982, 106:118-131. 1915966, 7055208.
113. Blackwell CC, Moscovis SM, Gordon AE, Al Madani OM, Hall ST, Gleeson M, Scott RJ, Roberts-Thomson J, Weir DM, Busuttil A. Ethnicity, infection and sudden infant death syndrome. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2004, 42:53-65. 10.1016/j.femsim.2004.06.007, 15325398.
114. Stockwell EG, Swanson DA, Wicks JW. Economic status differences in infant mortality by cause of death. Public Health Rep 1988, 103:135-142. 1477962, 3128828.
115. Courts C, Madea B. Genetics of the sudden infant death syndrome. Forens Sci Int 2010, 203:25-33.
116. Opdal SH, Rognum TO. Gene variants predisposing to SIDS: current knowledge. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2011, 7:26-36. 10.1007/s12024-010-9182-9, 20623341.
117. Osawa MR, Kimura A, Hasegawa I, Mukasa N, Satoh F. SNP association and sequence analysis of the NOS1AP gene in SIDS. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2009, 11:S307-S308.
118. Weese-Mayer DE, Ackerman MJ, Marazita ML, Berry-Kravis EM. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome: review of implicated genetic factors. Am J Med Genet 2007, 143A:771-788. 10.1002/ajmg.a.31722, 17340630.
119. Poetsch M, Czerwinski M, Wingenfeld L, Vennemann M, Bajanowski T. A common FMO3 polymorphism may amplify the effect of nicotine exposure in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Int J Legal Med 2010, 124:301-306. 10.1007/s00414-010-0428-6, 20198379.
120. Brion M, Quintela I, Sobrino B, Torres M, Allegue C, Carracedo A. New technologies in the genetic approach to sudden cardiac death in the young. Forens Sci Int 2010, 203:15-24.
121. Van Norstrand DW, Ackerman MJ. Genomic risk factors in sudden infant death syndrome. Genome Med 2010, 2:86. 10.1186/gm207, 21122164.
122. Cheng J, Van Norstrand DW, Medeiros-Domingo A, Valdivia C, Tan BH, Ye B, Kroboth S, Vatta M, Tester DJ, January CT, Makielski JC, Ackerman MJ. Alpha1-syntrophin mutations identified in sudden infant death syndrome cause an increase in late cardiac sodium current. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2009, 2:667-676. 10.1161/CIRCEP.109.891440, 2810855, 20009079.
123. Naeye RL, Ladis B, Drage JS. Sudden infant death syndrome. A prospective study. Am J Dis Child 1976, 130:1207-1210.
124. Kraus JF, Greenland S, Bulterys M. Risk factors for sudden infant death syndrome in the US Collaborative Perinatal Project. Int J Epidemiol 1989, 18:113-120. 10.1093/ije/18.1.113, 2722353.
125. Henriksen T. Foetal nutrition, foetal growth restriction and health later in life. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1999, 88:4-8.
126. Kandall SR, Gaines J, Habel L, Davidson G, Jessop D. Relationship of maternal substance abuse to subsequent sudden infant death syndrome in offspring. J Pediatr 1993, 123:120-126. 10.1016/S0022-3476(05)81554-9, 8320605.
127. Spiers PS, Wang L. Short pregnancy interval, low birthweight, and the sudden infant death syndrome. Am J Epidemiol 1976, 104:15-21.
128. Carroll-Pankhurst C, Mortimer EA. Sudden infant death syndrome, bedsharing, parental weight, and age at death. Pediatrics 2001, 107:530-536. 10.1542/peds.107.3.530, 11230594.
129. Malamitsi-Puchner A, Boutsikou T. Adolescent pregnancy and perinatal outcome. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 2006, 3(Suppl 1):170-171.
130. Naeye RL, Ladis B, Drage JS. Sudden infant death syndrome. A prospective study. Am J Dis Child 1976, 130:1207-1210.
131. Osmond C, Murphy M. Seasonality in the sudden infant death syndrome. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 1988, 2:337-345. 10.1111/j.1365-3016.1988.tb00228.x, 3072532.
132. Hoffman HJ, Damus K, Hillman L, Krongrad E. Risk factors for SIDS. Results of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development SIDS Cooperative Epidemiological Study. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988, 533:13-30. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb37230.x, 3048169.
133. Hunt CE. Small for gestational age infants and sudden infant death syndrome: a confluence of complex conditions. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2007, 92:F428-429. 10.1136/adc.2006.112243, 2675383, 17951549.
134. Willinger M, Hoffman HJ, Hartford RB. Infant sleep position and risk for sudden infant death syndrome: report of meeting held January 13 and 14, 1994, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. Pediatrics 1994, 93:814-819.
135. McKenna JJ, McDade T. Why babies should never sleep alone: a review of the co-sleeping controversy in relation to SIDS, bedsharing and breast feeding. Paediatr Respir Rev 2005, 6:134-152. 10.1016/j.prrv.2005.03.006, 15911459.
136. Moon RY, Horne RS, Hauck FR. Sudden infant death syndrome. Lancet 2007, 370:1578-1587. 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61662-6, 17980736.
137. Fleming PJ, Levine MR, Azaz Y, Wigfield R, Stewart AJ. Interactions between thermoregulation and the control of respiration in infants: possible relationship to sudden infant death. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1993, 82(Suppl 389):57-59.
138. McIntosh CG, Tonkin SL, Gunn AJ. What is the mechanism of sudden infant deaths associated with co-sleeping?. N Z Med J 2009, 122:69-75.
139. Blair PS, Sidebotham P, Berry PJ, Evans M, Fleming PJ. Major epidemiological changes in sudden infant death syndrome: a 20-year population-based study in the UK. Lancet 2006, 367:314-319. 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)67968-3, 16443038.
140. Mage DT. A probability model for the age distribution of SIDS. J Sudden Infant Death Syndrome Infant Mortal 1996, 1:13-31.
141. Poets CF, Samuels MP, Wardrop CA, Picton-Jones E, Southall DP. Reduced haemoglobin levels in infants presenting with apparent life-threatening events--a retrospective investigation. Acta Paediatr 1992, 81:319-321. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1992.tb12234.x, 1606392.
142. Salomonis N, Pico A, Hanspers K. SIDS Susceptibility Pathways (Homo sapiens). , http://www.wikipathways.org/index.php/Pathway:WP706
143. Tester DJ, Ackerman M. Cardiomyopathic and channelopathic causes of sudden, unexpected death in infants and children. Annu Rev Med 2009, 60:69-84. 10.1146/annurev.med.60.052907.103838, 18928334.
144. Ferrante L, Opdal SH, Vege A, Rognum TO. Cytokine gene polymorphisms and sudden infant death syndrome. Acta Paediatr 2009, 99:384-388.
145. Meuhlenbein MO, Bribiescas RG. Testosterone-mediated immune functions and male life histories. Am J Hum Biol 2005, 17:527-558. 10.1002/ajhb.20419, 16136532.
146. Forest MG, Sizonenko PC, Cathiard AM, Bertrand J. Hypophyso-gonadal functions in humans during the first year of life. 1. Evidence for testicular activity in early infancy. J Clin Invest 1974, 53:819-828. 10.1172/JCI107621, 333063, 4812441.
147. Mage DT, Donner M. A unifying theory for SIDS. Int J Pediatr 2009, 2009:368270. 2798085, 20049339.
148. Fish EN. The X-files in immunity: sex-based differences predispose immune responses. Nat Rev Immunol 2008, 8:737-744. 10.1038/nri2394, 18728636.
149. Winsauer G, Resch U, Hofer-Warbinek R, Schichi YM, de Martin R. XIAP regulates bi-phasic NF-kappaB induction involving physical interaction and ubiquination of MEKK2. Cell Signal 2008, 20:2107-2112. 10.1016/j.cellsig.2008.08.004, 18761086.
150. Davila S, Hibberd ML, Hari Dass R, Wong HE, Sahiratmadja E, Bonnard C, Alisjahbana B, Szeszko JS, Balabanova Y, Drobniewski F, van Crevel R, van de Vosse E, Nejentsev S, Ottenhoff TH, Seielstad M. Genetic association and expression studies indicate a role of toll-like receptor 8 in pulmonary tuberculosis. PLoS Genet 2008, 4:e1000218. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000218, 2568981, 18927625.
151. Sartiani L, Stillitano F, Luceri C, Suffredini S, Toti S, De Filippo C, Cuomo V, Tattoli M, Dolara P, Mugelli A, Cerbai E. Prenatal exposure to carbon monoxide delays postnatal cardiac maturation. Lab Invest 2010, 90:1582-1593. 10.1038/labinvest.2010.122, 20644522.
152. Werne J, Garrow I. Sudden apparently unexplained death during infancy. 1. Pathologic findings in infants found dead. Am J Pathol 1959, 29:633-652.
153. Handforth PC. Sudden unexpected death in infants. CMAJ 1959, 80:872-873.
154. Jacobsen T, Voight M. Sudden and unexpected infant death. II. Result of medico-legal autopsies of 356 infants aged 0-2 years. Acta Med Leg Soc (Liege) 1956, 9:133-159.
155. Geertinger P. Sudden Death in Infancy 1968, Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
156. Cooke RT, Welsh RG. A study in cot death. Brit Med J 1964, 2:1549-1554. 10.1136/bmj.2.5424.1549, 1817584, 14211753.
157. Marshall TK. The Northern Ireland Study: pathology findings. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Causes of Sudden Death in Infants 1970, 108-117. Seattle: University of Washington Press, Bergman AB, Beckwith JB, Ray CG.
158. Beckwith JB. Intrathoracic petechial hemorrhages: a clue to the mechanism of death in sudden infant death syndrome. Ann NY Acad Sci 1988, 533:37-47. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb37232.x, 3048177.
159. Valdes-Dapena M, McFreeley PA, Hoffman HJ, Damus KH, Franciosi RR, Allison DJ, Jones M, Hunter JC. Summary of histopathologic findings and implications for future SIDS research. Histopathology Atlas for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 1993, 281-299. Washington, DC: Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, American Registry of Pathology and The National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.