International socio-economic human rights: The key to global health improvement?

International Journal of Human Rights

Volumn 14, Issue 2, 2010, Pages 246-279

  Bernier, Louise ^a  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DE SHERBROOKE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Global distributive justice; International socio economic human rights; Market forces; Right to health

Indexed keywords

EID: 79956245674     PISSN: 13642987     EISSN: 1744053X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13642980802535351     Document Type: Article

References (328)

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2. L. London, 'Human Rights and Public Health: Dichotomies or Synergies in Developing Countries? Examining the Case of HIV in South Africa', The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 4 (2002): 677.
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5. Early Child Development Knowledge Network of the Commission on Social Determinants of Health, Total environment assessment model for early child development - Evidence report, 2007, Geneva, World Health Organization, http://www.who.int/social_determinants/resources/ecd_kn_evidence_report_2007.pdf (accessed May 20th, 2009) at p. 86. Notes.
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8. The impact of economic inequality on people's health can be observed both within and between countries and depends on various factors including governmental resources and priorities and the availability and affordability of universal or private health insurance coverage. Even if we acknowledge the importance and seriousness of health inequities arising at the national level, this paper will focus on the growing global health divide between populations of the nations of the North and South, discussing the possibility that this divide will be aggravated by the introduction of new medical technologies aimed at health improvement. Notes.
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11. L. Bernier, 'Justice In Genetics: Intellectual Property And Human Rights From A Cosmopolitan Liberal Perspective' (PhD diss., McGill University, 2006) to be published as a manuscript with Edward Elgar Publishing, forthcoming.
12. We undertook this exercise in the two first chapters of our doctorate thesis.
13. Bernier, 'Global Application of Distributive Justice: A Cosmopolitan Approach' and 'An Argument for Global Distribution in Health', 24, 58.
14. For a good overview of the main theories of justice refer to.
15. W. Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Introduction, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002)
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19. F. Peters and T. Evans, 'Ethical Dimensions of Health Equity', in Challenging Inequities in Health, from Ethics to Action, ed. T. Evans and others (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 25.
20. C.R. Beitz, Political Theory and International Relations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).
21. J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
22. Ibid., 7-8, 303.
23. T.W. Pogge, 'Cosmopolitanism and Sovereignty', Ethics 103, no. 1 (October 1992): 49.
24. C. Beitz, 'Rawls's Law of Peoples', Ethics 110, no. 4 (July 2000): 669.
25. O. O'Neill, 'Hunger, Needs and Rights', in Problems of International Justice, ed. S. Luper- Foy (London: Westview, 1988).
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27. For an enlightening discussion on the difference between the globalist and internationalist scope of equality.
28. A. Sangiovanni, 'Global Justice, Reciprocity and the State', Philosophy and Public Affairs 35, no. 1 (2007): 3.
29. T. Kor-Chor, 'The Boundary of Justice and the Justice of Boundaries: Defending Global Egalitarianism', Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 19, no. 2 (July 2006): 343-344;
30. J.P. Trachman, 'Welcome to Cosmopolis, World or Boundless Opportunity', Cornell International Law Journal 39, (2006), 477.
31. Indeed, states' involvement in the global order is far from always voluntary. States are often under tremendous pressure to participate in the global institutional order in general and in powerful and market driven institutions like the WTO in particular and to commit to different decisions that are not always in their best interests. For more on this point see. Notes.
32. A. Sangiovanni, 'Global Justice, Reciprocity and the State', 20.
33. T. Nagel, 'The Problem of Global Justice', Philosophy & Public Affairs 33 (2005): 128-129.
34. Indeed, as the global order is more and more filled with references to the need of reciprocity among states, cosmopolitans agree that the unique normative role of states should not be the only basis to justify the scope of justice and distributive equality. For more on this, see the interesting discussion on the 'new reciprocity' in J.P. Trachman 'Welcome to Cosmopolis, World or Boundless Opportunity'. Notes.
35. M. Rise, 'What to Say about the State' (Harvard University Kennedy School of Government Faculty Research Working Paper Series, February 2006), http://www.ssrn.com/abstrat=890753 (accessed 7 April 2007).
36. W. Hinsch, 'Global Distributive Justice', Methaphilosophy 32 (January 2001): 58.
37. C.R. Beitz, 'Cosmopolitan Liberalism and the States System', in Political Restructuring in Europe, Ethical Perspectives, ed. C. Brown (NewYork: Routledge, 1994), 123-124.
38. D. Moellendorf, 'Equality of Opportunity Globalized?', Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 19, no. 2 (July 2006): 316-317.
39. D. Miller, 'Against Global Egalitarianism', Journal of Ethics 9, no. 1 (2005): 55.
40. L. Doyal and I. Gough, A Theory of Human Need (NewYork: The Guildford Press, 1991), 172.
41. Like Daniels and Borse, we agree to define health as the absence of disease in a broad sense, which includes disabilities, loss of abilities due to trauma and environmental harms, as well as other functional deficits. Notes.
42. N. Daniels, Justice and Justification Reflective Equilibrium in Theory and Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), ch. 9.
43. K. Lederer, Human Needs (Cambridge: Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain, 1980).
44. Therefore, there seems to be a strong moral objection to the prevalence of different standards for health between different populations, particularly when these differences arise from socio-economic factors, something that explains why health is enshrined as a basic human right in international law, for example in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, art. 25 and in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 16 December 1966, art. 12. Notes.
45. Daniels, Justice and Justification, 179;
46. E. Anderson, 'What is the Point of Equality?', Ethics 109, no. 2 (1999): 317.
47. Indeed, Rawls argues that rational individuals who would not know their position in a society would desire, after ensuring equal distribution of basic liberties, that two basic principles govern distribution in their institutions: equality of opportunity (professional) and the difference principle (that all inequalities in the remaining social goods be to the greatest advantage of the least well-off). Notes.
48. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 63, 72-83;
49. J. Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 115.
50. It is therefore not designed to deal specifically with issues of health inequalities and health care distribution, and sets aside individual differences resulting from disease. For more on this point, see N. Daniels, B. Kennedy and I. Kawachi, 'Justice is Good for Our Health: How Greater Economic Equality would Promote Public Health', Boston Review 25 (February/March 2000), http://www.bostonreview.net/BR25.1/daniels.html (accessed 20 October 2007). Notes.
51. Ibid.
52. N. Daniels, Just Health Care (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 36-48.
53. Ibid., 280;
54. A. Sen, The Standard of Living, The Tanner Lectures (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
55. S. Anand. 'The Concern for Equity in Health' (working paper, Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, 2002), http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/hcpds/wpweb/Anand%20wp1201.pdf (accessed 1 October 2007);
56. Doyal and Gough, A Theory of Human Need, 91.
57. Abstracting from individuals' subjective idea of what should be their normal opportunities in terms of life plans, careers, etc. N. Daniels, Just Health: Meeting Health Needs Fairly (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), chap. 2. Notes.
58. Refer to Pogge's interesting discussion on this point: T.W. Pogge, Justice in Health Care: Reflexions on the Foundations of Health Equity (working paper series, Cambridge, MA, Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, 1999). Notes.
59. H. Shue, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence and US Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 59-60, 159.
60. Doyal and Gough, A Theory of Human Need, 181.
61. The normative grounds upon which distribution in health should be operated and the analysis of correlative rights and obligations will not be addressed in this paper. For a complete discussion on this topic, we refer the reader to the two first chapters of our doctorate thesis: Bernier, 'Intellectual Property and Human Rights', 24, 58. Notes.
62. Such view has been qualified as an institutional form of an ideal theory since it does not take non-ideal conditions for granted, but instead aims to find justifications for existing institutions, taking ideal circumstances into account. It is different from the ideal theory we argue for. In fact, our primary goal is not to justify the existing institutions, but to determine how best to meet our global distributive justice ideals in health, preferably but not necessarily within the actual institutional structure. Notes.
63. M. Blake, 'Distributive Justice, Sate Coercion and Autonomy', Philosophy & Public Affairs 3 (2001): 262-264.
64. Ibid.
65. For a comprehensive analysis of the evolution of the concept of right.
66. G.B. Hebert, A Philosophical History of Rights (London: Transaction Publishers, 2002), 277.
67. J. Bentham, Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense Upon Stilts and Other Writings on the French Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
68. K. Marx, 'Capital', in Manifesto of the Communist Party, ed. F. Engels, trans. from the 3rd German ed. By S. Moore and E. Aveling (Chicago, IL: Encyclopædia Britannica, 1955).
69. Hebert, A Philosophical History of Rights, 286.
70. J. Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (London: Cornell University Press, 1989).
71. The early 1960s was marked by a new wave of human rights activity, which led to various international documents, including, for example, the 1959 Declaration of the Rights of the Child, the European Convention on Human Rights of 1963, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination of 1965, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (opened for signature and ratification in 1966 and coming into force in 1976), the 1975 Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women. For international legislation on human rights. Notes.
72. I. Brownlic, Basic Documents on Human Rights, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992).
73. Contrary to the UDHR, the two Covenants are legally binding on the states that ratified them, who thus have to comply with the treaties' provisions and submit reports on concrete actions taken toward this end. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) G.A. res. 2200A (XXI), 21 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 16) at 52, U.N. Doc. A/6316 (1966); International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), G.A. Res. 2200 (XXI/, UN GAOR, 21st Sess., Supp. No. 16, at 49, UN Doc. A/6316 (1966). Notes.
74. J. Mann and others, Health and Human Rights (New York: Routledge, 1999), 8.
75. M.C. Naussbaum, 'Capabilities, Human Rights and Universal Declaration', in The Future of International Human Rights, ed. B.H. Weston and S.P. Marks (Ardley: Transnational, 1999).
76. Art. 1 of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, UN Doc. A/CONF.157/24 (part 1). Notes.
77. T. Pogge, Realising Rawls (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1989), 133.
78. M. Robinson, 'The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Hope and History', Health and Human Rights 3, no. 2 (1998): 27.
79. S.R. Benatar, A.S. Daar, and P. Singer, 'Global Health Ethics: The Rationale for Mutual Caring', International Affairs 79, no. 1 (2003): 122.
80. K. Booth, 'Three Tyrannies', in Human Rights in Global Politics, ed. T. Dunne and N. Wheeler (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 31.
81. J. Chan, 'A Confucian Perspective on Human Rights for Contemporary China', in The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights, eds J.R. Bauer and D.A. Bell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 212.
82. B. Kausikan, 'Asia's Different Standard', Foreign Policy 92 (1993): 24.
83. R. Rorty, 'Human Rights, Rationality, and Sentimentality', in On Human Rights: the Oxford Amnesty Lectures 1993, ed. S.Shute and S. Hurley (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 117.
84. Some even say that human rights and their basic principles are echoed in every tradition of the world. For more on this view, refer to.
85. R. Coomaraswamy, 'Reinventing International Law: Women's Rights as Human Rights in the International Community', in Debating Human Rights: Critical Essays from the United States and Asia, ed. P. Van Ness (London: Routledge, 1999), 169.
86. M.C. Davis, 'Constitutionalism and Political Culture: The Debate over Human Rights and Asian Values', Harvard Human Rights Journal 11 (1998): 109.
87. F.R. Tesón, 'International Human Rights and Cultural Relativism', Virginia Journal of International Law 25 (1985): 869.
88. A.F. Bayefsky, 'Cultural Sovereignty, Relativism, and International Human Rights: New Excuses for Old Strategies', Ratio Juris 9 (1996): 42.
89. B. Parekh, 'Non-Ethnocentric Universalism', in Human Rights in Global Politics, eds T. Dunne and N.J. Wheeler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 143.
90. W. Austin, 'Using the Human Rights Paradigm in Health Ethics: The Problems and the Possibilities', Nursing Ethics 8, no. 3 (2001): 190.
91. R. Martin, A System of Rights (Oxford: Clarendon, 1993), 75;
92. R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 49.
93. who refers to human rights as a 'lowest common denominator'.
94. M. Naussbaum, 'Human Functioning and Social Justice: in Defence of Aristotelian Essentialism', Political Theory 20 (1992): 222.
95. Features of agency have been regrouped in four categories: (a) capacity to make life decisions without undue pressure; (b) ability to acquire a certain basic level of education and knowledge; (c) capacity to undertake some chosen projects; and (d) liberty to pursue what one perceives as the good life. For more on this, refer to. Notes.
96. J. Griffin, 'First Steps in an Account of Human Rights', European Journal of Philosophy 9, no. 3 (2001): 306.
97. C. Brown, 'Universal Human Rights: A Critique', in Human Rights in Global Politics, ed. T. Dunne and N. J. Wheeler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 106.
98. J. Griffin, 'Discrepancies Between the Best Philosophical Account of Human Rights and the International Law of Human Rights', Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 101 (2001): 1.
99. Parekh, 'Non-Ethnocentric Universalism'.
100. Booth, 'Three Tyrannies'.
101. J. Waldron, The Right to Private Property (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), 3.
102. A. Renteln, International Human Rights: Universalism vs Relativism (Newbury Park: Sage, 1990).
103. D. Kennedy, 'The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?', Harvard Human Rights Journal 15 (2002): 140.
104. W. Brown, States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 128.
105. Indeed, even if they believe in the same special nature of human beings and in the fact that all should somehow benefit from equal and universal treatment, they do not believe that rights are always the appropriate tools to safeguard universal and global equality. For more on this position refer to. Notes.
106. M.C. Naussbaum, 'Capabilities, Human Rights and Universal Declaration', in The Future of International Human Rights, ed. B.H. Weston and S.P. Marks (Ardley: Transnational, 1999);
107. A. Sen, Commodities and Capabilities (New York: Elsevier Science Pub., 1985).
108. A. Sen. Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 1999), 270.
109. Austin, 'Using the Human Rights Paradigm';
110. Doyal and Gough, A Theory of Human Need, 136.
111. This vision is supported by Mandela when he refers to his country's liberation and highlights the importance of rights' universality in fostering a global sense of solidarity: '[o]ne of the striking features of modern times is the number of men and women all over the globe, in all continents, who fight violation of human rights', cited in Booth, 'Three Tyrannies', 57. Notes.
112. C. Jones, Global Justice, Defending Cosmopolitanism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 80-93.
113. A. Gerwirth, 'Rights', in Encyclopedia of Ethics, ed. L.C. Becker and C. Becker (London: Garland, 1992), 1108.
114. S. Bowles and H. Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism: Property, Community, and the Contradictions of Modern Social Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1986), 170.
115. J. Mann and others, Health and Human Rights (New York: Routledge, 1999), chap. 16.
116. J. Donnelly, 'Human Rights and Asian Values: A Defense of "Western Universalism"', in The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights, ed. J.R. Bauer and D.A. Bell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 68.
117. Ibid.
118. T. Evans, 'Universal Human Rights: As Much Round and Round As Ever Onward', The International Journal of Human Rights 7, no. 4 (2003): 166.
119. S. Gill, 'Globalization, Market Civilization and Disciplinary Liberalism', Millennium: Journal of International Studies 24, no. 3 (1995).
120. M. Mutua, Human Rights: A Political and Cultural Critique (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002), 35.
121. Booth, 'Three Tyrannies', 52-63.
122. Evans, 'Universal Human Rights', 166.
123. T.W. Pogge, 'Human Rights and Global Health: A Research Program', Metaphilosophy 36, no. 1 (2005): 196.
124. R. McCorquodale and R. Fairbrother, 'Globalization and Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 21, no. 3 (1999): 740.
125. M. Koskenniemi, 'The Future of Statehood', Harvard International Law Journal 32 (1991): 397;
126. R. McCorquodale, 'Self-Determination: A Human Rights Approach', International and Comparative Law Quarterly 43 (1994): 857.
127. This principle is codified in the Charter of the United Nations, 892 U.N.T.S. 119, art. 2(1).
128. E. O'Keefe and A. Scott-Samuel, 'Human Rights and Wrongs: Could Health Impact Assessment Help?', The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 4 (2002): 734.
129. This is especially relevant as the reference to international human rights enforcement mechanisms is conditional on prior exhaustion of all national remedies.
130. Beitz, 'Human Rights as a Common Concern', 274;
131. Mann and others, Health and Human Rights, chap. 2.
132. M. Monshipouri, C.E. Welch, and E.T. Kennedy, 'Multinational Corporations and the Ethics of Global Responsibility: Problems and Possibilities', Human Rights Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2003): 969.
133. Mann and others, Health and Human Rights, chap. 16.
134. For a clear exposé of this topic, especially on the link between states' obligations and the activities they undertake across borders, refer to. Notes.
135. S. Skogly and M. Gibney, 'Transnational Human Rights Obligations', Human Rights Quarterly 24, no. 3 (2002): 781.
136. UN Charter, art.1 (3), signed 26 June 1945, 59 Stat. 1031, T.S. No. 993, 3 Bevans 1153 (entered into force 24 October 1945).
137. ICSECR, art. 2 and 23; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No 14: The right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, Article 12 of the Covenant (UNHCHR, May 12, 2000, E/C. 13/2000/4), http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/E.C.12.2000.4.En?OpenDocument (accessed 20 October 2007). Notes.
138. Indeed, the role of international cooperation in human rights enforcement has been highlighted by the former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights when she refers to protection of the right to health, saying, '[s]pecifically, State parties should recognise the essential role of international cooperation and comply with their commitment to take joint and separate action for the full realisation of the right to health, taking into account the gross inequality in the health status of people, particularly between developed and developing countries'. UN Economic and Social Council, 'Report of the High Commissioner: The Impact of the Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights on Human Rights', June 27, 2001, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/13, par. 35. Notes.
139. Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.157/23, 1993, part. I, art.4.
140. A.J. Langlois, 'Human Rights: The Globalization and Fragmentation of Moral Discourse', Review International Studies 28, (2002): 484.
141. P. Willets, 'Transnational Actors and International Organisations in Global Politics', in The Globalisation of World Politics, eds. L. Baylis and S. Smith (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001): 287.
142. A. Clapham, Human Rights Obligations of Non-State Actors (Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2006).
143. C. Jocknick, 'Confronting the Impunity of Non-State Actors: New Field for the Promotion of Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 21, no. 1 (1999): 56.
144. Indeed, while maintaining that IPR are not or should not be considered as Human Rights, we have to acknowledge that they have been introduced in a lot of Human Rights' normative documents and that there has been some political pressure to qualify them as such. See generally: Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948, art. 27(2); the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966, art. 15(1); and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 2000, art. 17(1). Notes.
145. For example, in Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General) 2002 4 S.C.R. 429, the majority of the Canadian Supreme Court refused to interpret section 7 of the Canadian Charter (protecting the right to life, liberty and security of the person and the right not to be deprived of these rights) to include positive obligations for the government. Indeed, speaking for the majority, Justice McLachlin held that section 7 of the Canadian Charter does not imply positive duties on government to provide a basic decent standard of living (para. 76 et ss.). More recently, in Chaoulli v. Québec (Attorney General) 2005 1 S.R.C. 791, a majority of four judges against three decided that the right to life, liberty and security of persons also protected by the Quebec Charter include a right to efficient health care financed by the public or the private sector. In this decision, the Court did not impose positive obligations on government but instead opened the door to the private sector for health care delivery. However, in a 1997 case (Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) 1997 3 S.C.R. 624) the Supreme Court of Canada broadly interpreted the right to equality, a traditional civil right, to include an equal right to resources required to take advantage of public health services offered to everyone, without discrimination. For more on the Canadian situation on the right to health, refer to. Notes.
146. S. Yazdanian, 'Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) v. South Africa (Minister of Health): Reflections on the Right to Health Care in Canada', Canadian HIV/AIDS Policy and Law Review 9, no. 2 (August 2004), 65-70.
147. R.W. Cox, 'Civil Society at the Turn of the Millennium: Prospects for an Alternative World Order', Rev. Int'l Stud. 25 (1999): 3;
148. T. Evans, 'International Human Rights Law as Power/Knowledge', Human Rights Quarterly 27, no. 3 (2005): 1046.
149. M.K. Addo, Human Rights Standards and the Responsibility of Transnational Corporations (Boston, MA: Kluwer Law International, 1999).
150. P. Alston, 'The Myopia of the Handmaidens: International Lawyers and Globalization', European Journal of International Law 8 (1997): 435;
151. McCorquodale and Fairbrother, 'Globalization and Human Rights'.
152. This situation brings Chimni to say that '[a]s things stand now, the neo-colonial third world states will continue to exist but essentially in the service of the TCC [transnational capitalist class] and the global state. The Northen/Western state, on the other hand, will continue to shape the form and content of the emerging global state to realise TCC interests'. Chimni, 'International Institutions Today', 6. Notes.
153. A. Eide, 'Obstacles and Goals to be Pursued', in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Textbook, eds A. Eide and others, 2nd ed. (London: Maaetinus Nijhoff, 2001), 553.
154. For example, although the World Bank has recently undertaken over 600 judicial reform projects aimed at improving the condition of the least well off, it seems to be part of a larger effort to facilitate transactions, protect property rights, and establish a stable investment environment in priority. For more on this, refer to World Bank Legal Vice-Presidency, Legal and Judicial Reform: Strategic Directions (2003), http://www4.worldbank.org/legal/legalr/GreyBookFinal2003.pdf (accessed 14 November 2007). Notes.
155. K. Rittich, 'The Future of Law and Development: Second Generation Reforms and the Incorporation of the Social', Michigan Journal of International Law 26 (Fall 2004): 217.
156. R. Baker, Capitalism's Achilles Heel: Dirty Money and How to Renew the Free-Market System (Hoboken, NJ: JohnWiley & Sons, 2005).
157. According to recent statistics, developed countries represent 15.5% of the world's population while controlling 80.4% of the world's income: World Bank, World Development Report 2005 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), 257. Notes.
158. Bernier, 'Justice In Genetics', where we addressed this topic at length in chapter III under our discussion of the TRIPs negotiations.
159. A. Anghie, 'Time Present and Time Past: Globalization, International Financial Institutions, and the Third World', New York University Journal of International Law & Politics 32 (2000): 274.
160. S. Picciotto, 'Democratizing Globalism', in The Market or the Public Domain, Global Governance and the Asymmetry of Power, ed. D. Drache (New York: Routledge, 2001), 335.
161. A. Clapham, 'Globalization and the Rule of Law', in Globalization, Human Rights and the Rule of Law, ed. A. Dieng (Geneva: International Commission of Jurists, 1999), 31.
162. K. Marx, 'On the Jewish Question', in Early Political Writing, ed. J. O'Walley (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
163. For example, this appears from how the AIDS crisis has been handled so far. Anghie, 'Time Present and Time Past', 273. More generally. Notes.
164. A. Hoogvelt, Globalization and the Postcolonial World: The New Political Economy of Development (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001).
165. For example, in a matter involving the Yanomami Indians, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) concluded that the right to health enshrined in the American Declaration had been violated by the Government of Brazil (IACHR Res. No. 12/85, Case 7615 (Yanomami Indians v. Brazil), 5 March 1985, reprinted in Annual Report of the IACHR 1984-85, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.83, Doc. 14, corr. 1, at 33, 1 October 1985 quoted in B. Toebes, 'Towards an Improved Understanding of the International Right to Health', Human Right Quarterly 21, no. 3 (1999): 662) The Commission stated that in refraining from taking appropriate actions to prevent mining and other harmful utilisation of the rainforest, authorities failed to protect their people's health and cultural traditions. In reaction to this decision, Brazil modified its constitution and established the Yanomami Reserve to ensure solid protection of the community, their lands, and their health. For more on this case. Notes.
166. S.J. Anaya and R.A. Williams, Jr, 'The Protection of Indigenous Peoples' Rights over Lands and Natural Resources Under the Inter-American Human Rights System', Harvard Human Right Journal 14 (Spring 2001): 33.
167. S.R. Benatar, 'A Perspective from Africa on Human Rights and Genetic Engineering', in The Genetic Revolution and Human Rights, ed. R. Dawkins (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 159.
168. C. Brown, Sovereignty, Rights and Justice, International Political Theory Today (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2002), 103.
169. G.A. Mower, International Cooperation for Social Justice: Global and Regional Protection of Economic/Social Rights (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1985), 3.
170. O. O'Neill, Bounds of Justice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 155.
171. O. O'Neill, 'Hunger, Needs and Rights', in Problems of International Justice, ed. S. Luper-Foy (London: Westview, 1988);
172. P. Jones, Rights (London: MacMillan, 1994), 13-15.
173. Basic rights are those grounded in basic human needs and establishing the threshold under which no one should be entitled to fall to avoid degrading inequalities. Notes.
174. Shue, Basic Rights, 111.
175. P.D. Jacobson and S. Soliman, 'Co-opting the Health and Human Rights Movement', The Journal of Law, Medicine & Ethics 30, no. 4 (2002): 705.
176. A.R. Chapman, 'Conceptualizing the Right to Health: AViolation Approach', Tennessee Law Review 65 (1998): 389.
177. Constitution of the World Health Organization, adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States.
178. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 25; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art.12; Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, G.A. res. 34/180, 34 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 46) at 193, U.N. Doc. A/ 34/46, entered into force 3 September 1981, art.12; Convention on the Rights of the Chi1d, G.A. res. 44/25, annex, 44 U.N. GAOR Supp. (No. 49) at 167, U.N. Doc. A/44/49 (1989), entered into force 2 September 1990, art.24; See also, African Charter on Human and People's Rights, adopted 27 June 1981, OAU Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 rev. 5, 21 I.L.M. 58 (1982), entered into force 21 October 1986, Art. 16; Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1988, Art. 10.1. Notes.
179. A.R. Chapman, 'The Human Rights Implications of Intellectual Property Protection', Journal of International Economic Law 5 (2002): 880.
180. A.E. Yamin, 'Protecting and Promoting the Right to Health in Latin America: Selected Experience from the Field', Health and Human Rights 5, no. 1 (2000): 117.
181. B. Toebes, 'Towards an Improved Undertaking of the International Right to Health', Human Right Quarterly 21, no. 3 (1999): 662.
182. P. Alston, 'Out of the Abyss: The Challenges Confronting the New U.N. Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 9 (1987): 351-355.
183. Declaration of Alma-Ata, 12 September 1978, repr. in Report of the International Conference on Primary Health Care (Geneva:World Health Organization, 1978), art.VII; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment No 14: The right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health, Article 12 of the Covenant, E/C. 13/2000/4 (UNHCHR, 12 May 2000), http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(symbol)/E.C.12.2000.4.En?OpenDocument (accessed 18 November 2007) Mann and others, Health and Human Rights, 8. Notes.
184. nd ed., (London: Maartinus Nijhoff, 2001), 169.
185. Committee on ESCR, General Comment No 14, par. 39 and 45.
186. S. Caney, 'Cosmopolitan Justice and Equalising Opportunities', Metaphilosophy 32 (January 2001): 113.
187. Rawls, A Theory of Justice, 118-120;
188. Beitz, 'Rawls's Law of Peoples'.
189. Bernier, 'Justice in Genetics', chap. 2.
190. Acharya, 'Toward Establishing Universal Basic Health Norm';
191. Doyal and Gough, A Theory of Human Need, 130-145.
192. Kennedy, 'International Human Rights Movement'.
193. P. Cullet, 'Patent and Medicines: The Relationship Between TRIPS and the Human Right to Health', International Affairs 79, no. 1 (2003): 1391.
194. Airey v. Ireland, 32 Eur. Ct. H.R. (ser. A) (1979), reprinted in 2 Eur. H.R. Rep. 305 (1979).
195. C. Scott, 'Reaching Beyond (Without Abandoning) the Category of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 21, no. 3 (1999): 633.
196. Shue, Basic Rights, 14.
197. Benatar, Daar, and Singer, 'Global Health Ethics'.
198. R.J. Vincent, Human Rights and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 8.
199. T. Dunne and N. J. Wheeler, Human Rights in Global Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
200. A. Chapman, 'Reintegrating Right and Responsibilities', in International Rights and Responsibilities for the Future, eds K.W. Hunter and T.C. Mack (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), 3.
201. A. Robertson, 'Critical Reflection, on the Politics of Need: Implications for Public Health', Social Science and Medicine 47 (1998): 1419.
202. UN Economic and Social Council, Report of the High Commissioner: The impact of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights on Human Rights, E/CN.4/Sub.2/2001/13 (UNHCHR, June 27, 2001) http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/e06a5300f90fa0238025668700518ca4/590516104e92e87bc1256aa8004a8191/FILE/G0114345.pdf (accessed 20 October 2007). Notes.
203. Nevertheless, we have to keep in mind the importance of developing appropriate infrastructures and training programs to insuring a better availability of medical products and technologies and to finding a comprehensive solution to global health issues. For more on this point, refer to. Notes.
204. K. Balasubramaniam, 'Access to Medicine: Patents, Price and Public Policy - Consumer Perspective', in Global Intellectual Property Rights, Knowledge, Access and Development, eds P. Drahos and R. Mayne (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 87;
205. L. Bernier, K. Durell, and E.R. Gold, The Impact of DNA Patents on Access to Genetic Technologies and Services: View from Developing Countries (Geneva: World Health Organization, January 2004).
206. Shue, Basic Rights;
207. Austin, 'Using the Human Rights Paradigm'.
208. J. Narveson, The Libertarian Idea (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1988), 57.
209. R. Cruft, 'Human Rights and Positive Duties', Ethics and International Affairs 19, no. 1 (2005): 30.
210. Cruft, 'Human Rights and Positive Duties', 35-37.
211. M. Jackman, 'The Protection of Welfare Rights under the Charter', Ottawa Law Review 20 (1988): 257.
212. C. Scott, 'The Interdependence and Permeability of Human Rights Norms: Towards a Partial Fusion of the International Covenants on Human Rights', Osgoode Hall 27 (1989): 769.
213. Shue, Basic Rights, 91.
214. Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia;
215. C. Wellman, An Approach to Rights: Studies in the Philosophy of Law and Morals (Boston, MA: Kluwer Publishers, 1997), 112-114.
216. M. Cranston, What are Human Rights? (New York: Tapling Publishing Co., 1973).
217. A. Attaran, 'Human Rights and Biomedical Research Funding for the Developing World: Covering State Obligations Under the Right to Health', Health and Human Rights 4, no. 1 (1999): 26.
218. R. Robertson, 'Measuring State Compliance with the Obligation to Devote the Maximum Available Resources to Realising Economic Social and Cultural Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 16 (1994): 703-713.
219. The Committee has done this in the past for Chile, UN doc. E/C.12/1988/SR.13, par. 12 and North Korea UN doc, E/C.12/1987/SR 22, p. 5 and 17.
220. Toebes, 'Towards an Improved Undertaking'.
221. R. Calland and M Taylor, 'Parliament and the Socio-Economic Imperative - What is the Role of the National Legislature?', Law, Democracy and Development 1 (November 1997): 193.
222. S. Liebenberg, 'Socio-Economic Rights', in Constitutional Law of South Africa, ed. M. Chaskalson and others (Cape Town: Juta & Co., 1998), chap. 41.
223. N. Haysom, 'Constitutionalism, Majoritarian Democracy and Socio-Economic Rights', South African Journal on Human Rights 8 (1992): 456.
224. Until now, very few courts have judicially reviewed the right to health, but there have been a handful of cases. For example, in a matter involving the Yanomami Indians, the Inter- American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) concluded that in refraining from taking appropriate actions to prevent mining and other harmful utilisation of the rainforest, authorities failed to protect their people's health and cultural traditions: IACHR Res. No. 12/85, Case 7615 (Yanomami Indians v. Brazil), 5 March 1985, reprinted in Annual Report of the IACHR 1984-85, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.83, Doc. 14, corr. 1, at 33, 1 October 1985 quoted in Toebes, 'Towards an Improved Undertaking'. Another court decision related to the right to health took place in Canada, in 1997. The Supreme Court of Canada broadly interpreted the right to equality, a traditional civil right, expanding its protection to include an equal right to resources required to take advantage of public health services offered to everyone, without discrimination in Eldridge v. British Columbia (Attorney General) [1997] 3 S.C.R. 624. In this case, the Court held that the failure of the BC authorities to provide sign language interpretation to deaf patients violated the equality rights of disabled people to fully benefit from the medicare system. More recently, in Chaoulli v. Québec (Attorney General) [2005] 1 S.R.C. 791, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that the Québec province's ban on private health insurance for services covered by the public universal system violates the right to life and to security protected by the Québec Charter. Notes.
225. T.W. Pogge, 'Severe Poverty as a Violation of Negative Duties', Ethics and international Affairs 19, no. 1 (2005): 66-78.
226. S.J. Gould, 'The Moral State of Tahiti-and of Darwin', Natural History 10 (1991): 19.
227. For an enlightening discussion on multiplicative harms and perpetrators and on the role of social institutions.
228. E. Ashford, 'The Inadequacy of our Traditional Conception of the Duties Imposed by Human Rights', Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence XIX, no. 2 (July 2006): 226-30.
229. Pogge deliberately refuses to take a stand on positive duties, even if he does say that he agrees with indirect positive duties to aid when people's basic human rights are at risk. He remains uncommitted to the issue of positive duties without denying them, and focuses only on negative duties. Notes.
230. Pogge, 'Severe Poverty Violation Negative Duties', 65-76.
231. Pogge, 'Cosmopolitanism and Sovereignty', 50-61.
232. T. Pogge, 'How Should Human Rights be Conceived?', Jahrbuch fur Recht und Ethik (1995): 3.
233. O. O'Neill, Towards Justice and Virtue: A Constructive Account of Practical Reasoning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
234. Ashford, 'The Inadequacy of our Traditional Conception of the Duties Imposed by Human Rights'.
235. T.W. Pogge, 'Recognized and Violated by International Law: The Human Rights of the Global Poor', Leiden Journal of International Law 18, no. 4 (2005): 717.
236. Ashford, 'The Inadequacy of our Traditional Conception of the Duties Imposed by Human Rights', 228.
237. C. Juma and L. Yee-Cheong, 'Reinventing Global Health: The Role of Science, Technology and Innovation', The Lancet 365 (19 March 2005): 1105.
238. C. May, A Global Political Economy of Intellectual Property Rights, The New Enclosures? (London: Routledge, 2000), chap. 4.
239. S. Bowles and H. Gintis, Democracy and Capitalism: Property, Community, and the Contradictions of Modern Social Thought (New York: Basic Books, 1986).
240. Shue, Basic Rights, 131.
241. Brown, Sovereignty, Rights and Justice.
242. Ashford, 'The Inadequacy of our Traditional Conception of the Duties Imposed by Human Rights', 219, 229.
243. for an opposite view on this point see O'Neill, 'Toward Justice as Virtue', where he makes the argument that rights only exist when institutional frameworks are in place to allocate specific duties to identified agents. Notes.
244. David A. Reidy, 'Three Human Rights Agendas', Canadian Journal of Law and Jurisprudence 29, no. 2 (July 2006): 239, 250.
245. Ashford, 'The Inadequacy of our Traditional Conception of the Duties Imposed by Human Rights', 232-233.
246. A. Sen, 'Consequential Evaluation and Practical Reason', The Journal of Philosophy 17, no. 9 (2000): 495-498
247. Shue, Basic Rights, 158.
248. K. Marx and F. Engels, Selected Works Vol. Three, 1875-1895 (Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1970), 19.
249. A. Eide, 'Future Protection of Economic and Social Rights in Europe', in Monitoring Human Rights in Europe: Comparing International Procedure and Mechanisms, ed. A. Bloed and others (Boston, MA: Maartinus Nijhoff, 1993), 187.
250. M. Scheinin, 'Economic and Social Rights as Legal Rights', in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Textbook, ed. A. Eide and others, 2nd ed. (London: Maartinus Nijhoff, 2001), 29.
251. J.K. Mapulanga-Hulston, 'Examining the Justiciability of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', The International Journal of Human Rights 6, no. 4 (2002): 42-53.
252. J. Hausermann, 'The Realisation and Implementation of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights', in Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - Progress and Achievement, eds. D.M. Hill and R. Beddards (New York: St Martin Press, 1992), 49.
253. A.R. Chapman, 'Monitoring Women's Right to Health Under the International Covenant on Economic Socio and Cultural Rights', American University Law Review 44 (1995): 1159-1160.
254. S. Gill, 'Market Civilisation and Disciplinary Neoliberalism', Millennium 24, no. 3 (1995): 412.
255. Evans, 'International Human Rights Law Power/Knowledge', 1055.
256. British Medical Association, The Medical Profession and Human Rights: Handbook for a Changing Agenda (London: Zed Books, 2001), 24-26.
257. House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee, Report on UK Ethical Foreign Policy, HC100 4, 1997.
258. However, their views as to what qualifies as a minimally regulated market do not converge. For example, partisans of the libertarian school favour a strong non-interventionist policy and reject egalitarian redistribution of wealth whereas other economists would recommend some form of intervention through national and international regulation in certain cases. For more on different schools of thoughts related to the market theory. Notes.
259. M. Friedman, Capitalism and Freedom (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1962);
260. A. Smith, Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations: a New and Condensed Edition (New York: T.Y. Crowell, 1904).
261. J.E. Stiglitz and L. Squire, 'International Development: Is It Possible?', Foreign Policy 11, (Spring 1998): 138
262. Nozick, Anarchy, State and Utopia.
263. Eide and others, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 555.
264. A good example is taken from the Uruguay Round negotiations which, as discussed at length in chapter III of our thesis, were undertaken and conducted on unfair terms, characterised by gross inequalities in bargaining powers, with an agenda that reflected those inequalities. For a more complete discussion on this. Notes.
265. J.E. Stiglitz and A. Charlton, Fair Trade for All, How Trade can Promote Development (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005).
266. K. Rittich, 'Transformed Pursuits: The Quest for Equality in Globalized Markets', Harvard Human Rights Journal 13 (Spring 2002): 257.
267. For more on the link between globalisation, corruption and socio-economic rights refer to: A. Sen. Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 1999). African Studies Center - University of Pennsylvania, 'Kenya: Corruption Fight Stalling', AfricaFocus Bulletin, February 5, 2005), http://www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus021105.html (accessed 3 September 2008). Notes.
268. R.N. Nwabueze, 'Ethnopharmacology, Patents and the Politics of Plants Genetic Resources', Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law 11 (2003): 585;
269. Transparency International, Global Corruption Report 2007 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)
270. E.J. Ellis and B.D. Waldron, 'Globalisation, Corruption and Poverty Reduction', Development Bulletin 55 (July 2001): 26.
271. M.A. Warner, 'Globalization and Human Rights: An Economic Model', Brooklyn Journal of International Law 25 (1999): 99;
272. W.H. Meyer, 'Human Rights and MNCs: Theory Versus Quantitative Analysis', Human Right Quarterly 18 (1996): 368;.
273. M. Pendleton, 'A New Human Right, The Right to Globalization', Fordham International Law Journal 22 (1999): 2052.
274. R. Wade, 'Japan, the World Bank and the Art of Paradigm Maintenance: The East Asian Miracle in Political Perspective', New Left Review 217 (1996): 3.
275. K. Rittich, 'The Future of Law and Development', Michigan Journal of International Law 26 (Fall 2004): 217.
276. K. Rittich, Recharacterizing Restructuring: Law, Distribution and Gender in Market Reform (The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2002).
277. U. Baxi, 'Voices of Suffering and the Future of Human Rights', Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems 8 (1998): 163;
278. R. Bauer and D.A. Bell, eds., The East Asian Challenge for Human Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 241;
279. J. Bhagwati, 'The Capital Myth: The Difference Between Trade in Widgets and Dollars', Foreign Affairs 77, no. 3 (1998): 10-12.
280. R.W. Cox, 'Civil Society at the Turn of the Millennium: Prospects for an Alternative World Order', Review of International Studies 25 (1999): 3.
281. M.J. Lerner, The Belief in a Just World: A Fundamental Delusion (New York: Plenum Press, 1980).
282. T. Freidman, The Lexus and the Olive Tree (New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1999).
283. R. Kothari, 'Globalization: AWorld Adrift', Alternatives 22 (1997): 228.
284. The Global Compact, an initiative of Kofi Annan that encourages responsible corporate actors to get involved in finding solutions to the challenges of globalisation, illustrates this. To learn more about this initiative, refer to this website: http://www.unglobalcompact.org/ (accessed 20 October 2007). Notes.
285. Chimni, 'International Institutions Today';
286. J. Bennett, 'Multinational Corporations, Social Responsibility and Conflict', Journal of International Affairs 55 (2002): 403;
287. K. Lee, D. Humphreys, and M. Pugh, 'Privatization in the United Nations System; Patterns of Influence in Three Intergovernmental Organizations', Global Society 11 (1997): 339.
288. G. Meintjes, 'An International Human Rights Perspective on Corporate Codes', in Global Codes of Conduct: An Idea Whose Time has Come, ed. O.F. Williams (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000), 83;
289. S.R. Ratner, 'Corporations and Human Rights: A Theory of Legal Responsibility', Yale Law Journal 111 (2001): 461;
290. W.H. Meyer, Human Rights And International Political Economy In Third World Nations: Multinational Corporations, Foreign Aid, And Repression (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998).
291. K.T. Jackson, 'A Cosmopolitan Court for Transnational CorporateWrongdoing: Why its Time has Come', Journal of Business Ethics (May 1998): 758;
292. M. Monshipouri, C.E. Welch, and E.T. Kennedy, 'Multinational Corporations and the Ethics of Global Responsibility: Problems and Possibilities', Human Rights Quarterly 25, no. 4 (2003): 969.
293. M. Winston, 'NGO Strategies for Promoting Corporate Social Responsibility', Ethics & International Affairs 16 (2002): 71;
294. N. Stammers, 'Social Movements and the Social Construction of Human Rights', Human Rights Quarterly 21, no.4 (1999): 991.
295. Stammers, 'Social Movements'.
296. Indeed, many argue that structural adjustment programs established by international financial institutions have had negative effects on states' abilities to meet their human rights obligations. For more on this argument, refer to. Notes.
297. M. Chossudovsky, The Globalisation of Poverty: Impacts of IMF and World Bank Reforms (London: Zed Books, 1997);
298. M. Chossudovsky, The Globalization of Poverty and the New World Order, 2nd ed. (Shanty Bay: Global Outlook, 2003);
299. E. Carrasco and M.A. Kose, 'Income Distribution and the Bretton-Woods Institutions: Promoting an Enabling Environment for Social Development', Transnational Law & Contemporary Problems 6 (1996): 1.
300. Indeed, in Africa, many countries have to spend four times more money on debt repayment than they do on education and health care for their people. For more discussion and statistics on this point, refer to. Notes.
301. Anghie, 'Time Present and Time Past', 257-258;
302. D. Ransom, 'The Dictatorship of Debt', World Press Review (October 1999): 6;
303. Secretary-General Pursuant to Commission on Human Right Resolution 1989/45, Question of the Realization of the Right to Development: Global Consultation on the Realization of the Right to Development as a Human Right, Geneva, 1990, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/1990/9/Rev.1. Notes.
304. In that sense, the Human Development Index is a much more complete indication of real growth as it highlights differences between economic growth and welfare.
305. Rittich, 'Transformed Pursuits', 257.
306. Monshipouri, Welch, and Kennedy, 'Multinational Corporations Ethics Global Responsibility', 967.
307. For example, see World Bank, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Development and Human Rights: The Role of the World Bank (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1998), http://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/rights/hrtext.pdf (accessed 19 November 2007); See also IMF, Guidelines on Conditionality, September 25, 2002, http://www.imf.org/External/np/pdr/cond/2002/eng/guid/092302.htm (accessed 19 November 2007) aiming at promoting sustainable development and growth; Notes.
308. D. Forsythe, 'The United Nations, Human Rights, and Development', Human Rights Quarterly 19 (1997): 334.
309. F.J. Garcia, 'The Universal Declaration of Human Rights at 50 and the Challenge of Global Markets: Trading Away the Human Rights Principle', Brooklyn Journal of International Law 25 (1999): 51;
310. Anghie, 'Time Present and Time Past', 262.
311. Stammers, 'Social Movements';
312. J. Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (London: Cornell University Press, 1989), 29.
313. K.E. Smith and M.M. Light, Ethics and Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 29.
314. Doyal and Gough, A Theory of Human Need.
315. K. Hossain, 'Globalisation and Human Rights: Clash of Universal Aspirations and Special Interests', in The Future of International Human Rights, eds. E. Burns, H. Weston, and S.P. Marks (New York: Transnational Publishers, 1999).
316. Rittich, 'Transformed Pursuits', 260;
317. M. Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998);
318. A. Petter, 'Immaculate Deception: The Charter's Hidden Agenda', The Advocate 45 (1987): 860.
319. M. Mandel, The Charter of Rights & the Legalization of Politics in Canada (Toronto: Thompson Educational Publishing, 1994).
320. Kennedy, 'International Human Rights Movement', 134.
321. Stammers, 'Social Movements', 1001.
322. One example of this is the social ecologist movement, which has been very aggressive and efficient in challenging power relations and structure for a better and increased protection of environment rights. For more on this example, refer to Stammer, 'Social Movements'; Notes.
323. B. Rajagopal, 'From Resistance to Renewal: The Third World, Social Movements, and the Expansion of International Institutions', Harvard International Law Journal 41 (2000): 533, 578;
324. R. Khan, 'The Anti-globalization Protests: Side-show of Global Governance, or Law-making on the Streets?', Heidelberg Journal of International Law 61 (2001): 323.
325. Chimni, 'International Institutions Today'.
326. Brown, Sovereignty, Rights and Justice;
327. Langlois, 'Human Rights: Globalization and Fragmentation'.
328. 'International Law and Global Public Health', Kansas Law Review 48 (1999): 1.