Candida prophylaxis and therapy in the ICU

Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 32, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 159-173

  Echeverria, Pablo M ^a   Kett, Daniel H ^a   Azoulay, Elie ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI MILLER SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b SAINT LOUIS HOSPITAL   (France)

^c UNIVERSITÉ PARIS DESCARTES   (France)

Author keywords

Candida; colonization; echinocandins; ICU; outcomes

Indexed keywords

AMPHOTERICIN B; ANIDULAFUNGIN; BETA GLUCAN; CASPOFUNGIN; EFUNGUMAB; FLUCONAZOLE; KETOCONAZOLE; MANNAN; MICAFUNGIN; PLACEBO; VORICONAZOLE;

ARTICLE; BLOOD CULTURE; CANDIDA; CANDIDEMIA; CANDIDIASIS; CATHETER REMOVAL; DRUG MEGADOSE; FLUORESCENCE IN SITU HYBRIDIZATION; FUNGAL COLONIZATION; HOSPITALIZATION; HOSPITALIZATION COST; HUMAN; INFECTION PREVENTION; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LABORATORY TEST; MORBIDITY; NONHUMAN; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT;

ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS; CANDIDA; CANDIDIASIS; CARRIER STATE; CRITICAL ILLNESS; HUMANS; INTENSIVE CARE UNITS; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RISK FACTORS; SEPSIS;

EID: 79955047334     PISSN: 10693424     EISSN: 10989048     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1275528     Document Type: Article

References (123)

1. Wisplinghoff H, Bischoff T, Tallent S M., Seifert H, Wenzel R P., Edmond M B. Nosocomial bloodstream infections in US hospitals: analysis of 24,179 cases from a prospective nationwide surveillance study. Clin Infect Dis 2004 39 3 309-317 (Pubitemid 39050477)
2. Horn D L., Fishman J A., Steinbach W J. et al. Presentation of the PATH Alliance registry for prospective data collection and analysis of the epidemiology, therapy, and outcomes of invasive fungal infections. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2007 59 4 407-414 (Pubitemid 350186332)
3. Richardson M D. Changing patterns and trends in systemic fungal infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005 56 Suppl 1 i5-i11 (Pubitemid 41236084)
4. Lipsett P A. Surgical critical care: fungal infections in surgical patients. Crit Care Med 2006 34 9, Suppl S215-S224 (Pubitemid 44253708)
5. Eggimann P, Garbino J, Pittet D. Epidemiology of Candida species infections in critically ill non-immunosuppressed patients. Lancet Infect Dis 2003 3 11 685-702 (Pubitemid 37345347)
6. Kullberg B J., Oude Lashof A M. Epidemiology of opportunistic invasive mycoses. Eur J Med Res 2002 7 5 183-191
7. Garbino J, Kolarova L, Rohner P, Lew D, Pichna P, Pittet D. Secular trends of candidemia over 12 years in adult patients at a tertiary care hospital. Medicine (Baltimore) 2002 81 6 425-433 (Pubitemid 35285962)
8. Pfaller M A., Diekema D J. Epidemiology of invasive candidiasis: a persistent public health problem. Clin Microbiol Rev 2007 20 1 133-163 (Pubitemid 46167771)
9. Tortorano A M., Peman J, Bernhardt H et al, ECMM Working Group on Candidaemia. Epidemiology of candidaemia in Europe: results of 28-month European Confederation of Medical Mycology (ECMM) hospital-based surveillance study. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004 23 4 317-322 (Pubitemid 38669942)
10. Arendrup M C., Fuursted K, Gahrn-Hansen B et al. Semi-national surveillance of fungaemia in Denmark 2004-2006: increasing incidence of fungaemia and numbers of isolates with reduced azole susceptibility. Clin Microbiol Infect 2008 14 5 487-494 (Pubitemid 351513938)
11. Arendrup M C., Fuursted K, Gahrn-Hansen B et al. Seminational surveillance of fungemia in Denmark: notably high rates of fungemia and numbers of isolates with reduced azole susceptibility. J Clin Microbiol 2005 43 9 4434-4440 (Pubitemid 41298224)
12. Poikonen E, Lyytik?inen O, Anttila V J., Ruutu P. Candidemia in Finland, 1995-1999. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 9 8 985-990 (Pubitemid 36944520)
13. Chen S, Slavin M, Nguyen Q et al, Australian Candidemia Study. Active surveillance for candidemia, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis 2006 12 10 1508-1516 (Pubitemid 44570891)
14. Hsueh P R., Teng L J., Yang P C., Ho S W., Luh K T. Emergence of nosocomial candidemia at a teaching hospital in Taiwan from 1981 to 2000: increased susceptibility of Candida species to fluconazole. Microb Drug Resist 2002 8 4 311-319
15. Cao B, Wang H, Wu L, Sun W J., Li F, Liu Y M. Epidemiological study of invasive nosocomial candidiasis in 2 teaching hospitals in Beijing [in Chinese]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi 2008 88 28 1970-1973
16. Almirante B, Rodr?guez D, Park B J. et al, Barcelona Candidemia Project Study Group. Epidemiology and predictors of mortality in cases of Candida bloodstream infection: results from population-based surveillance, Barcelona, Spain, from 2002 to 2003. J Clin Microbiol 2005 43 4 1829-1835
17. Gudlaugsson O, Gillespie S, Lee K et al. Attributable mortality of nosocomial candidemia, revisited. Clin Infect Dis 2003 37 9 1172-1177 (Pubitemid 37372504)
18. Morgan J, Meltzer M I., Plikaytis B D. et al. Excess mortality, hospital stay, and cost due to candidemia: a case-control study using data from population-based candidemia surveillance. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005 26 6 540-547 (Pubitemid 40896144)
19. Zaoutis T E., Argon J, Chu J, Berlin J A., Walsh T J., Feudtner C. The epidemiology and attributable outcomes of candidemia in adults and children hospitalized in the United States: a propensity analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2005 41 9 1232-1239 (Pubitemid 41532664)
20. Falagas M E., Apostolou K E., Pappas V D. Attributable mortality of candidemia: a systematic review of matched cohort and case-control studies. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2006 25 7 419-425 (Pubitemid 44078593)
21. Leleu G, Aegerter P, Guidet B, Collège des Utilisateurs de Base de Données en Réanimation. Systemic candidiasis in intensive care units: a multicenter, matched-cohort study. J Crit Care 2002 17 3 168-175
22. Rentz A M., Halpern M T., Bowden R. The impact of candidemia on length of hospital stay, outcome, and overall cost of illness. Clin Infect Dis 1998 27 4 781-788 (Pubitemid 29244335)
23. Pelz R K., Lipsett P A., Swoboda S M. et al. Candida infections: outcome and attributable ICU costs in critically ill patients. J Intensive Care Med 2000 15 255-261
24. Wilson L S., Reyes C M., Stolpman M, Speckman J, Allen K, Beney J. The direct cost and incidence of systemic fungal infections. Value Health 2002 5 1 26-34 (Pubitemid 34160368)
25. Wey S B., Mori M, Pfaller M A., Woolson R F., Wenzel R P. Hospital-acquired candidemia: the attributable mortality and excess length of stay. Arch Intern Med 1988 148 12 2642-2645 (Pubitemid 19048184)
26. Olaechea P M., Palomar M, Le?n-Gil C et al, EPCAN Study Group. Economic impact of Candida colonization and Candida infection in the critically ill patient. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004 23 4 323-330 (Pubitemid 38669943)
27. Moran C, Grussemeyer C A., Spalding J R., Benjamin D K. Jr, Reed S D. Comparison of costs, length of stay, and mortality associated with Candida glabrata and Candida albicans bloodstream infections. Am J Infect Control 2010 38 1 78-80
28. Hassan I, Powell G, Sidhu M, Hart W M., Denning D W. Excess mortality, length of stay and cost attributable to candidaemia. J Infect 2009 59 5 360-365
29. Hajjeh R A., Sofair A N., Harrison L H. et al. Incidence of bloodstream infections due to Candida species and in vitro susceptibilities of isolates collected from 1998 to 2000 in a population-based active surveillance program. J Clin Microbiol 2004 42 4 1519-1527 (Pubitemid 38500790)
30. Yap H Y., Kwok K M., Gomersall C D. et al. Epidemiology and outcome of Candida bloodstream infection in an intensive care unit in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J 2009 15 4 255-261
31. Voss A, le Noble J L., Verduyn Lunel F M., Foudraine N A., Meis J F. Candidemia in intensive care unit patients: risk factors for mortality. Infection 1997 25 1 8-11 (Pubitemid 27075651)
32. Nolla-Salas J, Sitges-Serra A, Le?n-Gil C et al, Study Group of Fungal Infection in the ICU. Candidemia in non-neutropenic critically ill patients: analysis of prognostic factors and assessment of systemic antifungal therapy. Intensive Care Med 1997 23 1 23-30 (Pubitemid 27067892)
33. Kett D H., Azoulay E, Echeverria P M., Vincent J L., Investigators E I. Candida bloodstream infections in the intensive care units: analysis of the Extended Prevalence of Infection in an Intensive Care Unit Study. Crit Care Med 2011 39 665-670
34. Aliyu S H., Enoch D A., Abubakar I I. et al. Candidaemia in a large teaching hospital: a clinical audit. QJM 2006 99 10 655-663 (Pubitemid 44542314)
35. Bassetti M, Righi E, Costa A et al. Epidemiological trends in nosocomial candidemia in intensive care. BMC Infect Dis 2006 6 21
36. Kibbler C C., Seaton S, Barnes R A. et al. Management and outcome of bloodstream infections due to Candida species in England and Wales. J Hosp Infect 2003 54 1 18-24 (Pubitemid 38002021)
37. Comert F, Kulah C, Aktas E, Eroglu O, Ozlu N. Identification of Candida species isolated from patients in intensive care unit and in vitro susceptibility to fluconazole for a 3-year period. Mycoses 2007 50 1 52-57 (Pubitemid 46046420)
38. Pfaller M A., Messer S A., Hollis R J. et al. Variation in susceptibility of bloodstream isolates of Candida glabrata to fluconazole according to patient age and geographic location in the United States in 2001 to 2007. J Clin Microbiol 2009 47 10 3185-3190
39. Leroy O, Gangneux J P., Montravers P et al, AmarCand Study Group. Epidemiology, management, and risk factors for death of invasive Candida infections in critical care: a multicenter, prospective, observational study in France (2005-2006). Crit Care Med 2009 37 5 1612-1618
40. Laverdiere M, Labbé A C., Restieri C et al. Susceptibility patterns of Candida species recovered from Canadian intensive care units. J Crit Care 2007 22 3 245-250 (Pubitemid 47385967)
41. Marriott D JE, Playford E G., Chen S et al, Australian Candidaemia Study. Determinants of mortality in non-neutropenic ICU patients with candidaemia. Crit Care 2009 13 4 R115
42. Yin Q Q., Zhang Y T., Fang Q. Study on the morbidity and pathogens of patients with candidemia at the intensive care unit [in Chinese]. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi 2008 29 5 464-468
43. Pfaller M A., Boyken L, Hollis R J. et al. In vitro susceptibility of invasive isolates of Candida spp. to anidulafungin, caspofungin, and micafungin: six years of global surveillance. [Erratum in J Clin Microbiol 2008 Sep;46(9):3184-3185] J Clin Microbiol 2008 46 1 150-156
44. Colombo A L., Perfect J, DiNubile M et al. Global distribution and outcomes for Candida species causing invasive candidiasis: results from an international randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003 22 8 470-474 (Pubitemid 37100593)
45. Pappas P G., Rex J H., Lee J et al, NIAID Mycoses Study Group. A prospective observational study of candidemia: epidemiology, therapy, and influences on mortality in hospitalized adult and pediatric patients. Clin Infect Dis 2003 37 5 634-643 (Pubitemid 37100802)
46. Bedini A, Venturelli C, Mussini C et al. Epidemiology of candidaemia and antifungal susceptibility patterns in an Italian tertiary-care hospital. Clin Microbiol Infect 2006 12 1 75-80 (Pubitemid 43372243)
47. Davis S L., Vazquez J A., McKinnon P S. Epidemiology, risk factors, and outcomes of Candida albicans versus non-albicans candidemia in nonneutropenic patients. Ann Pharmacother 2007 41 4 568-573 (Pubitemid 46625479)
48. Cohen Y, Karoubi P, Adrie C et al. Early prediction of Candida glabrata fungemia in nonneutropenic critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2010 38 3 826-830
49. Vincent J-L, Rello J, Marshall J et al, EPIC II Group of Investigators. International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA 2009 302 21 2323-2329
50. Choi H K., Jeong S J., Lee H S. et al. Bloodstream infections by Candida glabrata and Candida krusei: a single-center experience. Korean J Intern Med 2009 24 3 263-269
51. Hadley S, Lee W W., Ruthazer R, Nasraway S A. Jr. Candidemia as a cause of septic shock and multiple organ failure in nonimmunocompromised patients. Crit Care Med 2002 30 8 1808-1814 (Pubitemid 34879596)
52. Garrouste-Orgeas M, Timsit J F., Tafflet M et al, OUTCOMEREA Study Group. Excess risk of death from intensive care unit-acquired nosocomial bloodstream infections: a reappraisal. Clin Infect Dis 2006 42 8 1118-1126
53. Morrell M, Fraser V J., Kollef M H. Delaying the empiric treatment of Candida bloodstream infection until positive blood culture results are obtained: a potential risk factor for hospital mortality. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005 49 9 3640-3645 (Pubitemid 41233011)
54. Garey K W., Rege M, Pai M P. et al. Time to initiation of fluconazole therapy impacts mortality in patients with candidemia: a multi-institutional study. Clin Infect Dis 2006 43 1 25-31 (Pubitemid 43939072)
55. Puzniak L, Teutsch S, Powderly W, Polish L. Has the epidemiology of nosocomial candidemia changed? Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2004 25 8 628-633 (Pubitemid 39095043)
56. Guery B P., Arendrup M C., Auzinger G et al. Management of invasive candidiasis and candidemia in adult non-neutropenic intensive care unit patients, I: Epidemiology and diagnosis. Intensive Care Med 2009 35 1 55-62
57. Vincent J L., Anaissie E, Bruining H et al. Epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment of systemic Candida infection in surgical patients under intensive care. Intensive Care Med 1998 24 3 206-216 (Pubitemid 28190811)
58. Rex J H., Sobel J D. Prophylactic antifungal therapy in the intensive care unit. Clin Infect Dis 2001 32 8 1191-1200 (Pubitemid 32427691)
59. Blumberg H M., Jarvis W R., Soucie J M. et al, National Epidemiology of Mycoses Survey(NEMIS) Study Group The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey. Risk factors for candidal bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care unit patients: the NEMIS prospective multicenter study. Clin Infect Dis 2001 33 2 177-186 (Pubitemid 32643332)
60. Sobel J D., Rex J H. Invasive candidiasis: turning risk into a practical prevention policy? Clin Infect Dis 2001 33 2 187-190 (Pubitemid 32643333)
61. Agvald-Ohman C, Klingspor L, Hjelmqvist H, Edlund C. Invasive candidiasis in long-term patients at a multidisciplinary intensive care unit: Candida colonization index, risk factors, treatment and outcome. Scand J Infect Dis 2008 40 2 145-153
62. Le?n C, Ruiz-Santana S, Saavedra P et al, EPCAN Study Group. A bedside scoring system (Candida score) for early antifungal treatment in nonneutropenic critically ill patients with Candida colonization. Crit Care Med 2006 34 3 730-737
63. Le?n C, Ruiz-Santana S, Saavedra P et al, Cava Study Group. Usefulness of the Candida score for discriminating between Candida colonization and invasive candidiasis in non-neutropenic critically ill patients: a prospective multicenter study. Crit Care Med 2009 37 5 1624-1633
64. Dupont H, Paugam-Burtz C, Muller-Serieys C et al. Predictive factors of mortality due to polymicrobial peritonitis with Candida isolation in peritoneal fluid in critically ill patients. Arch Surg 2002 137 12 1341-1346 discussion 1347
65. Pelz R K., Lipsett P A., Swoboda S M., Diener-West M, Hammond J M., Hendrix C W. The diagnostic value of fungal surveillance cultures in critically ill patients. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2000 1 4 273-281
66. Michalopoulos A S., Geroulanos S, Mentzelopoulos S D. Determinants of candidemia and candidemia-related death in cardiothoracic ICU patients. Chest 2003 124 6 2244-2255 (Pubitemid 38010596)
67. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Pappas P G., Shoham S et al. Improvement of a clinical prediction rule for clinical trials on prophylaxis for invasive candidiasis in the intensive care unit. Mycoses 2011 54 1 46-51
68. Pittet D, Monod M, Suter P M., Frenk E, Auckenthaler R. Candida colonization and subsequent infections in critically ill surgical patients. Ann Surg 1994 220 6 751-758 (Pubitemid 24376373)
69. Pelz R K., Hendrix C W., Swoboda S M. et al. Double-blind placebo-controlled trial of fluconazole to prevent candidal infections in critically ill surgical patients. Ann Surg 2001 233 4 542-548 (Pubitemid 32234953)
70. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Pappas P G. Invasive candidiasis in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2006 34 3 857-863
71. Azoulay E, Timsit J F., Tafflet M et al, Outcomerea Study Group. Candida colonization of the respiratory tract and subsequent Pseudomonas ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest 2006 129 1 110-117 (Pubitemid 43265250)
72. Delisle M S., Williamson D R., Perreault M M., Albert M, Jiang X, Heyland D K. The clinical significance of Candida colonization of respiratory tract secretions in critically ill patients. J Crit Care 2008 23 1 11-17 (Pubitemid 351400358)
73. Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2006 355 25 2619-2630
74. Petri M G., König J, Moecke H P. et al. Epidemiology of invasive mycosis in ICU patients: a prospective multicenter study in 435 non-neutropenic patients. Paul-Ehrlich Society for Chemotherapy, Divisions of Mycology and Pneumonia Research. Intensive Care Med 1997 23 3 317-325 (Pubitemid 27129998)
75. Charles P E., Dalle F, Aube H et al. Candida spp. colonization significance in critically ill medical patients: a prospective study. Intensive Care Med 2005 31 3 393-400
76. Piarroux R, Grenouillet F, Balvay P et al. Assessment of preemptive treatment to prevent severe candidiasis in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med 2004 32 12 2443-2449 (Pubitemid 39648226)
77. Fricker-Hidalgo H, Lebeau B, Pelloux H, Grillot R. Use of the BACTEC 9240 System with Mycosis-IC/F blood culture bottles for detection of fungemia. J Clin Microbiol 2004 42 4 1855-1856, author reply 1855-1856 (Pubitemid 38500862)
78. Gherna M, Merz W G. Identification of Candida albicans and Candida glabrata within 1.5 hours directly from positive blood culture bottles with a shortened peptide nucleic acid fluorescence in situ hybridization protocol. J Clin Microbiol 2009 47 1 247-248
79. Shepard J R., Addison R M., Alexander B D. et al. Multicenter evaluation of the Candida albicans/Candida glabrata peptide nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization method for simultaneous dual-color identification of C. albicans and C. glabrata directly from blood culture bottles. J Clin Microbiol 2008 46 1 50-55
80. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Alexander B D., Kett D H. et al. Multicenter clinical evaluation of the (1> 3) beta-D-glucan assay as an aid to diagnosis of fungal infections in humans. Clin Infect Dis 2005 41 5 654-659 (Pubitemid 41170353)
81. Obayashi T, Negishi K, Suzuki T, Funata N. Reappraisal of the serum (1> 3)-beta-D-glucan assay for the diagnosis of invasive fungal infectionsa study based on autopsy cases from 6 years. Clin Infect Dis 2008 46 12 1864-1870
82. Odabasi Z, Mattiuzzi G, Estey E et al. Beta-D-glucan as a diagnostic adjunct for invasive fungal infections: validation, cutoff development, and performance in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia and myelodysplastic syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2004 39 2 199-205 (Pubitemid 38971490)
83. Fukazawa Y. Antigenic structure of Candida albicans: immunochemical basis of the serologic specificity of the mannans in yeasts. Immunol Ser 1989 47 37-62
84. Sendid B, Tabouret M, Poirot J L., Mathieu D, Fruit J, Poulain D. New enzyme immunoassays for sensitive detection of circulating Candida albicans mannan and antimannan antibodies: useful combined test for diagnosis of systemic candidiasis. J Clin Microbiol 1999 37 5 1510-1517 (Pubitemid 29187827)
85. Moragues M D., Ortiz N, Iruretagoyena J R. et al. Evaluation of a new commercial test (Candida albicans IFA IgG) for the serodiagnosis of invasive candidiasis [in Spanish]. Enferm Infecc Microbiol Clin 2004 22 2 83-88 (Pubitemid 38585446)
86. Berzaghi R, Colombo A L., Machado A M., de Camargo Z P. New approach for diagnosis of candidemia based on detection of a 65-kilodalton antigen. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2009 16 11 1538-1545
87. Ahmad S, Khan Z, Mustafa A S., Khan Z U. Seminested PCR for diagnosis of candidemia: comparison with culture, antigen detection, and biochemical methods for species identification. J Clin Microbiol 2002 40 7 2483-2489 (Pubitemid 34747352)
88. McMullan R, Metwally L, Coyle P V. et al. A prospective clinical trial of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the diagnosis of candidemia in nonneutropenic, critically ill adults. Clin Infect Dis 2008 46 6 890-896 (Pubitemid 351417192)
89. Schuster M G., Edwards J E. Jr, Sobel J D. et al. Empirical fluconazole versus placebo for intensive care unit patients: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2008 149 2 83-90 (Pubitemid 352008596)
90. Lam S W., Eschenauer G A., Carver P L. Evolving role of early antifungals in the adult intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2009 37 5 1580-1593
91. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Sable C, Sobel J et al. Multicenter retrospective development and validation of a clinical prediction rule for nosocomial invasive candidiasis in the intensive care setting. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2007 26 4 271-276 (Pubitemid 46572022)
92. Faiz S, Neale B, Rios E et al. Risk-based fluconazole prophylaxis of Candida bloodstream infection in a medical intensive care unit. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2009 28 6 689-692
93. Garbino J, Lew D P., Romand J A., Hugonnet S, Auckenthaler R, Pittet D. Prevention of severe Candida infections in nonneutropenic, high-risk, critically ill patients: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients treated by selective digestive decontamination. Intensive Care Med 2002 28 12 1708-1717 (Pubitemid 35435471)
94. Garey K W., Neuhauser M M., Bearden D T. et al. Evaluation of antifungals in the surgical intensive care unit: a multi-institutional study. Mycoses 2006 49 3 226-231
95. Shorr A F., Chung K, Jackson W L., Waterman P E., Kollef M H. Fluconazole prophylaxis in critically ill surgical patients: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med 2005 33 9 1928-1935 quiz 1936 (Pubitemid 41306511)
96. Playford E G., Webster A C., Sorrell T C., Craig J C. Antifungal agents for preventing fungal infections in non-neutropenic critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006 ? 1 CD004920
97. Eggimann P, Francioli P, Bille J et al. Fluconazole prophylaxis prevents intra-abdominal candidiasis in high-risk surgical patients. Crit Care Med 1999 27 6 1066-1072 (Pubitemid 29314312)
98. Magill S S., Swoboda S M., Shields C E. et al. The epidemiology of Candida colonization and invasive candidiasis in a surgical intensive care unit where fluconazole prophylaxis is utilized: follow-up to a randomized clinical trial. Ann Surg 2009 249 4 657-665
99. Bassetti M, Ansaldi F, Nicolini L et al. Incidence of candidaemia and relationship with fluconazole use in an intensive care unit. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009 64 3 625-629
100. Rocco T R., Reinert S E., Simms H H. Effects of fluconazole administration in critically ill patients: analysis of bacterial and fungal resistance. Arch Surg 2000 135 2 160-165 (Pubitemid 30078468)
101. Pappas P G., Kauffman C A., Andes D et al, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of candidiasis: 2009 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 2009 48 5 503-535
102. Hadley S, Huckabee C, Pappas P G. et al. Outcomes of antifungal prophylaxis in high-risk liver transplant recipients. Transpl Infect Dis 2009 11 1 40-48
103. Benedetti E, Gruessner A C., Troppmann C et al. Intra-abdominal fungal infections after pancreatic transplantation: incidence, treatment, and outcome. J Am Coll Surg 1996 183 4 307-316 (Pubitemid 26332741)
104. Guaraldi G, Cocchi S, Codeluppi M et al. Outcome, incidence, and timing of infectious complications in small bowel and multivisceral organ transplantation patients. Transplantation 2005 80 12 1742-1748 (Pubitemid 43054000)
105. Parkins M D., Sabuda D M., Elsayed S, Laupland K B. Adequacy of empirical antifungal therapy and effect on outcome among patients with invasive Candida species infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007 60 3 613-618 (Pubitemid 47299877)
106. Shan Y S., Sy E D., Wang S T., Lee J C., Lin P W. Early presumptive therapy with fluconazole for occult Candida infection after gastrointestinal surgery. World J Surg 2006 30 1 119-126 (Pubitemid 43081623)
107. Taur Y, Cohen N, Dubnow S, Paskovaty A, Seo S K. Effect of antifungal therapy timing on mortality in cancer patients with candidemia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010 54 1 184-190
108. Rex J H., Bennett J E., Sugar A M. et al, Candidemia Study Group and the National Institute. A randomized trial comparing fluconazole with amphotericin B for the treatment of candidemia in patients without neutropenia. N Engl J Med 1994 331 20 1325-1330 (Pubitemid 24347001)
109. Phillips P, Shafran S, Garber G et al, Canadian Candidemia Study Group. Multicenter randomized trial of fluconazole versus amphotericin B for treatment of candidemia in non-neutropenic patients. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1997 16 5 337-345 (Pubitemid 27271820)
110. Mora-Duarte J, Betts R, Rotstein C et al, Caspofungin Invasive Candidiasis Study Group. Comparison of caspofungin and amphotericin B for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2002 347 25 2020-2029 (Pubitemid 35461658)
111. DiNubile M J., Lupinacci R J., Strohmaier K M., Sable C A., Kartsonis N A. Invasive candidiasis treated in the intensive care unit: observations from a randomized clinical trial. J Crit Care 2007 22 3 237-244 (Pubitemid 47380232)
112. Betts R F., Nucci M, Talwar D et al, Caspofungin High-Dose Study Group. A multicenter, double-blind trial of a high-dose caspofungin treatment regimen versus a standard caspofungin treatment regimen for adult patients with invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2009 48 12 1676-1684
113. Pappas P G., Rotstein C M., Betts R F. et al. Micafungin versus caspofungin for treatment of candidemia and other forms of invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2007 45 7 883-893 (Pubitemid 47580382)
114. Reboli A C., Rotstein C, Pappas P G. et al, Anidulafungin Study Group. Anidulafungin versus fluconazole for invasive candidiasis. N Engl J Med 2007 356 24 2472-2482 (Pubitemid 46919773)
115. Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Oude Lashof A M., Kullberg B J., Rex J H. Voriconazole salvage treatment of invasive candidiasis. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2003 22 11 651-655 (Pubitemid 37491617)
116. Kullberg B J., Sobel J D., Ruhnke M et al. Voriconazole versus a regimen of amphotericin B followed by fluconazole for candidaemia in non-neutropenic patients: a randomised non-inferiority trial. Lancet 2005 366 9495 1435-1442 (Pubitemid 41483809)
117. Rex J H., Pappas P G., Karchmer A W. et al, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group. A randomized and blinded multicenter trial of high-dose fluconazole plus placebo versus fluconazole plus amphotericin B as therapy for candidemia and its consequences in nonneutropenic subjects. Clin Infect Dis 2003 36 10 1221-1228 (Pubitemid 36629929)
118. Pachl J, Svoboda P, Jacobs F et al, Mycograb Invasive Candidiasis Study Group. A randomized, blinded, multicenter trial of lipid-associated amphotericin B alone versus in combination with an antibody-based inhibitor of heat shock protein 90 in patients with invasive candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis 2006 42 10 1404-1413
119. Karwa R, Wargo K A. Efungumab: a novel agent in the treatment of invasive candidiasis. Ann Pharmacother 2009 43 11 1818-1823
120. Kuse E-R, Chetchotisakd P, da Cunha C A. et al, Micafungin Invasive Candidiasis Working Group. Micafungin versus liposomal amphotericin B for candidaemia and invasive candidosis: a phase III randomised double-blind trial. Lancet 2007 369 9572 1519-1527 (Pubitemid 46670281)
121. Rex J H., Bennett J E., Sugar A M. et al, NIAID Mycoses Study Group and the Candidemia Study Group. Intravascular catheter exchange and duration of candidemia. Clin Infect Dis 1995 21 4 994-996
122. Horn D L., Ostrosky-Zeichner L, Morris M I. et al. Factors related to survival and treatment success in invasive candidiasis or candidemia: a pooled analysis of two large, prospective, micafungin trials. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2010 29 2 223-229
123. Nucci M, Anaissie E, Betts R F. et al. Early removal of central venous catheter in patients with candidemia does not improve outcome: analysis of 842 patients from 2 randomized clinical trials. Clin Infect Dis 2010 51 3 295-303