A review of commuter exposure to ultrafine particles and its health effects

Atmospheric Environment

Volumn 45, Issue 16, 2011, Pages 2611-2622

  Knibbs, Luke D ^a   Cole Hunter, Tom ^a   Morawska, Lidia ^a  

^a QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Acute health effects; Air pollution; Public transport; Transport modes; Travel

Indexed keywords

DETERMINANTS OF EXPOSURE; DEVELOPING WORLD; FUEL TYPES; GENERAL TRENDS; HEALTH EFFECTS; HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS; KNOWLEDGE GAPS; MEAN CONCENTRATIONS; PUBLIC TRANSPORT; TRAFFIC PARAMETERS; TRANSPORT MODES; TRAVEL; TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES; ULTRAFINE PARTICLE;

AIR QUALITY; AIR TRANSPORTATION; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; HEALTH; POLLUTION; VENTILATION EXHAUSTS;

ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS;

FUEL;

ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; DEVELOPING WORLD; HEALTH RISK; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH; PUBLIC TRANSPORT; SPATIAL ANALYSIS; TRAFFIC EMISSION; TUNNEL;

CAR; COMBUSTION; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EXHAUST GAS; FILTRATION; HEALTH HAZARD; HUMAN; METEOROLOGY; PARTICLE SIZE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TRAFFIC; TRAVEL; WALKING;

EID: 79954595932     PISSN: 13522310     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.02.065     Document Type: Review

References (116)

1. Aarnio P., Yli-Tuomi T., Kousa A., Mäkelä T., Hirsikko A., Hämeri K., Räisänen M., Hillamo R., Koskentalo T., Jantunen M. The concentrations and composition of and exposure to fine particles (PM2.5) in the Helsinki subway system. Atmospheric Environment 2005, 39:5059-5066.
2. Araujo J., Nel A. Particulate matter and atherosclerosis: role of particle size, composition and oxidative stress. Particle and Fibre Toxicology 2009, 6:24.
3. Ashmore M.R., Dimitroulopoulou C. Personal exposure of children to air pollution. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:128-141.
4. Asmi E., Antola M., Yli-Tuomi T., Jantunen M., Aarnio P., Mäkelä T., Hillamo R., Hämeri K. Driver and passenger exposure to aerosol particles in buses and trams in Helsinki, Finland. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407:2860-2867.
5. Badland H.M., Duncan M.J. Perceptions of air pollution during the work-related commute by adults in Queensland, Australia. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:5791-5795.
6. Behrentz E., Fitz D.R., Pankratz D.V., Sabin L.D., Colome S.D., Fruin S.A., Winer A.M. Measuring self-pollution in school buses using a tracer gas technique. Atmospheric Environment 2004, 38:3735-3746.
7. Berghmans P., Bleux N., Panis L.I., Mishra V.K., Torfs R., Van Poppel M. Exposure assessment of a cyclist to PM10 and ultrafine particles. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407:1286-1298.
8. Bland J.M., Kerry S.M. Weighted comparison of means. BMJ 1998, 316:129.
9. Boogaard H., Borgman F., Kamminga J., Hoek G. Exposure to ultrafine and fine particles and noise during cycling and driving in 11 Dutch cities. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:4234-4242.
10. Briggs D.J., de Hoogh K., Morris C., Gulliver J. Effects of travel mode on exposures to particulate air pollution. Environment International 2008, 34:12-22.
11. Brook R.D., Rajagopalan S., Pope C.A., Brook J.R., Bhatnagar A., Diez-Roux A.V., Holguin F., Hong Y., Luepker R.V., Mittleman M.A., Peters A., Siscovick D., Smith S.C., Whitsel L., Kaufman J.D. Particulate matter air pollution and cardiovascular disease: an update to the scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2010, 121:2331-2378.
12. Brugge D., Durant J., Rioux C. Near-highway pollutants in motor vehicle exhaust: a review of epidemiologic evidence of cardiac and pulmonary health risks. Environmental Health 2007, 6:23.
13. Burtscher, H., Loretz, S., Keller, A., Mayer, A., Kasper, M., Artley, R.J., Strasser, R., Czerwinski, J. 2008. Nanoparticle filtration for vehicle cabins. SAE Paper 2008-01-0827.
14. Cascio W.E., Katwa L.C., Linn W.S., Stram D.O., Zhu Y., Cascio J.L., Hinds W.C. Effects of vehicle exhaust in aged adults riding on Los Angeles Freeways. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2009, 179:A1175.
15. Cattaneo A., Garramone G., Taronna M., Peruzzo C., Cavallo D.M. Personal exposure to airborne ultrafine particles in the urban area of Milan. Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2009, 151:012039.
16. Cheng Y.H., Liu C.C., Lin Y.L. Levels of ultrafine particles in the Taipei rapid transit system. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 2009, 14:479-486.
17. Cortese A.D., Spengler J.D. Ability of fixed monitoring stations to represent personal carbon monoxide exposure. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 1976, 26:1144-1150.
18. de Hartog J.J., Boogaard H., Nijland H., Hoek G. Do the health benefits of cycling outweigh the risks?. Environmental Health Perspectives 2010, 118:1109-1116.
19. de Nazelle A., Nieuwenhuijsen M. Integrated health impact assessment of cycling. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2010, 67:76-77.
20. de Nazelle A., Rodríguez D.A., Crawford-Brown D. The built environment and health: impacts of pedestrian-friendly designs on air pollution exposure. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407:2525-2535.
21. Daigle C.C., Chalupa D.C., Gibb F.R., Morrow P.E., Oberdörster G., Utell M.J., Frampton M.W. Ultrafine particle deposition in humans during rest and exercise. Inhalation Toxicology 2003, 15:539-552.
22. Delfino R.J., Sioutas C., Malik S. Potential role of ultrafine particles in associations between airborne particle mass and cardiovascular health. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005, 113:934-946.
23. El-Fadel M., Abi-Esber L. In-vehicle exposure to carbon monoxide emissions from vehicular exhaust: a critical review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 2009, 39:585-621.
24. Elder A., Gelein R., Silva V., Feikert T., Opanashuk L., Carter J., Potter R., Maynard A., Ito Y., Finkelstein J., Oberdörster G. Translocation of inhaled ultrafine manganese oxide particles to the central nervous system. Environmental Health Perspectives 2006, 114:1172-1178.
25. Fanara, M., 2003 (cited in Kaur et al., 2007). Personal exposure of ultrafine particles among cyclists in Bogota, Colombia. Paper presented at the 13th Annual Conference International Society of Exposure Analysis, Stresa, Italy.
26. Flachsbart P.G. Exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure Analysis 2007, 113-146. CRC Press, Boca Raton. Ott, Steinemann, Wallace (Eds.).
27. Frampton M.W. Does inhalation of ultrafine particles cause pulmonary vascular effects in Humans?. Inhalation Toxicology 2007, 19:75-79.
28. Fruin S., Westerdahl D., Sax T., Sioutas C., Fine P.M. Measurements and predictors of on-road ultrafine particle concentrations and associated pollutants in Los Angeles. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:207-219.
29. Gauderman W.J., Avol E., Gilliland F., Vora H., Thomas D., Berhane K., McConnell R., Kuenzli N., Lurmann F., Rappaport E., Margolis H., Bates D., Peters J. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. The New England Journal of Medicine 2004, 351:1057-1067.
30. Geiser M., Rothen-Rutishauser B., Kapp N., Schurch S., Kreyling W., Schulz H., Semmler M., Hof V.I., Heyder J., Gehr P. Ultrafine particles cross cellular membranes by nonphagocytic mechanisms in lungs and in cultured cells. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005, 113:1555-1560.
31. Gong L., Xu B., Zhu Y. Ultrafine particles deposition inside passenger vehicles. Aerosol Science and Technology 2009, 43:544-553.
32. Gulliver J., Briggs D.J. Time-space modeling of journey-time exposure to traffic-related air pollution using GIS. Environmental Research 2005, 97:10-25.
33. Haagen-Smit A.J. Carbon monoxide levels in city driving. Archives of Environmental Health 1966, 12:548-551.
34. Hammond D., Jones S., Lalor M. In-vehicle measurement of ultrafine particles on compressed natural gas, conventional diesel, and oxidation-catalyst diesel heavy-duty transit buses. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 2007, 125:239-246.
35. Han X., Naeher L.P. A review of traffic-related air pollution exposure assessment studies in the developing world. Environment International 2006, 32:106-120.
36. Hertel O., Hvidberg M., Ketzel M., Storm L., Stausgaard L. A proper choice of route significantly reduces air pollution exposure - a study on bicycle and bus trips on urban streets. Science of the Total Environment 2008, 389:58-70.
37. Hill L.B., Zimmerman N.J., Gooch J. A multi-city investigation of the effectiveness of retrofit emissions controls in reducing exposures to particulate matter in school buses. Clean Air Task Force report Available online:, (accessed 11.12.10). http://www.catf.us/resources/publications/files/CATF-Purdue_Multi_City_Bus_Study.pdf.
38. Hill L.B., Gooch J. A multi-city investigation of exposure to diesel exhaust in multiple commuting modes. Clean Air Task Force report Available online:, (accessed 11.12.10). http://www.catf.us/resources/publications/files/Multi_City_Commuter_Exposure_Report.pdf.
39. Hinds W.C. Cardiovascular health effects of fine and ultrafine particles during freeway travel. Report prepared for the California Air Resources Board and EPA Available online:, (accessed 21.02.11). http://www.arb.ca.gov/research/apr/past/04-324.pdf.
40. Hoek G., Beelen R., de Hoogh K., Vienneau D., Gulliver J., Fischer P., Briggs D. A review of land-use regression models to assess spatial variation of outdoor air pollution. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:7561-7578.
41. Hoek G., Beelen R., Kos G., Dijkema M., van der Zee S., Fischer P.H., Brunekreef B. Land use regression model for ultrafine particles in Amsterdam. Environmental Science & Technology 2011, 45:622-628.
42. Hoek G., Boogaard H., Knol A., de Hartog J., Slottje P., Ayres J.G., Borm P., Brunekreef B., Donaldson K., Forastiere F., Holgate S., Kreyling W.G., Nemery B., Pekkanen J., Stone V., Wichmann H.E., van der Sluijs J. Concentration response functions for ultrafine particles and all-cause mortality and hospital admissions: results of a european expert panel elicitation. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44:476-482.
43. Hvidberg M. Tracking human exposure to ultrafine particles in Copenhagen using GPS. Epidemiology 2006, 17:S38.
44. Ibald-Mulli A., Wichmann H.E., Kreyling W., Peters A. Epidemiological evidence on health effects of ultrafine particles. Journal of Aerosol Medicine 2002, 15:189-201.
45. Int Panis L., de Geus B., Vandenbulcke G., Willems H., Degraeuwe B., Bleux N., Mishra V., Thomas I., Meeusen R. Exposure to particulate matter in traffic: a comparison of cyclists and car passengers. Atmospheric Environment 2010, 44:2263-2270.
46. Jacobs L., Nawrot T.S., de Geus B., Meeusen R., Degraeuwe B., Bernard A., Sughuis M., Nemery B., Int Panis L. Subclinical responses in healthy cyclists briefly exposed to traffic-related air pollution: an intervention study. Environmental Health 2010, 9:64.
47. Jacobson M.Z. Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science and Regulation 2002, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 399 p.
48. Jerrett M. Toward a time-geography of exposure: novel technologies and emerging trends. " Air Pollution and Health: Bridging the Gap from Sources to Health Outcomes" Paper 16SQ3.4 2010, Available online:, (accessed 12.12.10). http://aaar.2010specialty.org/pdfs/Abstracts_by_Science_Question.pdf.
49. Kaminsky J.A., Gaskin E.A.L.M., Matsuda M., Miguel A.H. In-cabin commuter exposure to ultrafine particles on commuter roads in and around Hong Kong's Tseung Kwan O Tunnel. Aerosol and Air Quality Research 2009, 9:353-357.
50. Kaur S., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Colvile R.N. Pedestrian exposure to air pollution along a major road in Central London, UK. Atmospheric Environment 2005, 39:7307-7320.
51. Kaur S., Nieuwenhuijsen M., Colvile R. Personal exposure of street canyon intersection users to PM2.5, ultrafine particle counts and carbon monoxide in Central London, UK. Atmospheric Environment 2005, 39:3629-3641.
52. Kaur S., Clark R.D.R., Walsh P.T., Arnold S.J., Colvile R.N., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J. Exposure visualisation of ultrafine particle counts in a transport microenvironment. Atmospheric Environment 2006, 40:386-398.
53. Kaur S., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Colvile R.N. Fine particulate matter and carbon monoxide exposure concentrations in urban street transport microenvironments. Atmospheric Environment 2007, 41:4781-4810.
54. Kaur S., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J. Determinants of personal exposure to PM2.5, ultrafine particle counts, and CO in a transport microenvironment. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43:4737-4743.
55. Kettunen J., Lanki T., Tiittanen P., Aalto P.P., Koskentalo T., Kulmala M., Salomaa V., Pekkanen J. Associations of fine and ultrafine particulate air pollution with stroke mortality in an area of low air pollution levels. Stroke 2007, 38:918-922.
56. Kittelson D.B. Engines and nanoparticles: a review. Journal of Aerosol Science 1998, 29:575-588.
57. Klepeis N.E., Nelson W.C., Ott W.R., Robinson J.P., Tsang A.M., Switzer P., Behar J.V., Hern S.C., Engelmann W.H. The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 2001, 11:231-252.
58. Knibbs L.D., de Dear R.J., Atkinson S.E. Field study of air change and flow rate in six automobiles. Indoor Air 2009, 19:303-313.
59. Knibbs L.D., de Dear R.J., Morawska L., Mengersen K.L. On-road ultrafine particle concentration in the M5 East road tunnel, Sydney, Australia. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:3510-3519.
60. Knibbs L.D., de Dear R.J., Morawska L. Effect of cabin ventilation rate on ultrafine particle exposure inside automobiles. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44:3546-3551.
61. Knibbs L.D., de Dear R.J. Exposure to ultrafine particles and PM2.5 in four Sydney transport modes. Atmospheric Environment 2010, 44:3224-3227.
62. Knol A., de Hartog J., Boogaard H., Slottje P., van der Sluijs J., Lebret E., Cassee F., Wardekker J.A., Ayres J., Borm P., Brunekreef B., Donaldson K., Forastiere F., Holgate S., Kreyling W., Nemery B., Pekkanen J., Stone V., Wichmann H.E., Hoek G. Expert elicitation on ultrafine particles: likelihood of health effects and causal pathways. Particle and Fibre Toxicology 2009, 6:19.
63. Koutrakis P., Sioutas C. Physico-chemical properties and measurement of ambient particles. Particles in Our Air: Concentrations and Health Effects 1996, 15-40. Harvard University Press, Boston. Wilson, Spengler (Eds.).
64. Krausse B., Mardaljevic J. Patterns of drivers' exposure to particulate matter. Spatial Planning, Urban Form and Sustainable Transport 2005, 151-167. Ashgate Publishing, Aldershot. Williams (Ed.).
65. Larsson B.M., Sehlstedt M., Grunewald J., Skold C.M., Lundin A., Blomberg A., Sandstrom T., Eklund A., Svartengren M. Road tunnel air pollution induces bronchoalveolar inflammation in healthy subjects. European Respiratory Journal 2007, 29:699-705.
66. Larsson B.M., Grunewald J., Skold C.M., Lundin A., Sandstrom T., Eklund A., Svartengren M. Limited airway effects in mild asthmatics after exposure to air pollution in a road tunnel. Respiratory Medicine 2010, 104:1912-1918.
67. Laumbach R.J., Rich D.Q., Gandhi S., Amorosa L., Schneider S., Zhang J., Ohman-Strickland P., Gong J., Lelyanov O., Kipen H.M. Acute changes in heart rate variability in subjects with diabetes following a highway traffic exposure. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2010, 52:324-331.
68. Levy J.I., Dumyahn T., Spengler J.D. Particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in indoor and outdoor microenvironments in Boston, Massachusetts. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology 2002, 12:104-114.
69. Li N., Sioutas C., Cho A., Schmitz D., Misra C., Sempf J., Wang M., Oberley T., Froines J., Nel A. Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage. Environmental Health Perspectives 2003, 111:455-460.
70. Liu L.J.S., Phuleria H.C., Webber W., Davey M., Lawson D.R., Ireson R.G., Zielinska B., Ondov J.M., Weaver C.S., Lapin C.A., Easter M., Hesterberg T.W., Larson T. Quantification of self pollution from two diesel school buses using three independent methods. Atmospheric Environment 2010, 44:3422-3431.
71. Lorenc T., Brunton G., Oliver S., Oliver K., Oakley A. Attitudes to walking and cycling among children, young people and parents: a systematic review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2008, 62:852-857.
72. Marshall J.D., Brauer M., Frank L.D. Healthy neighborhoods: walkability and air pollution. Environmental Health Perspectives 2009, 117:1752-1759.
73. Marshall J.D. Environmental inequality: air pollution exposures in California's South Coast Air Basin. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:5499-5503.
74. McCreanor J., Cullinan P., Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Stewart-Evans J., Malliarou E., Jarup L., Harrington R., Svartengren M., Han I.K., Ohman-Strickland P., Chung K.F., Zhang J. Respiratory effects of exposure to diesel traffic in persons with asthma. The New England Journal of Medicine 2007, 357:2348-2358.
75. Morawska L., Ristovski Z., Jayaratne E.R., Keogh D.U., Ling X. Ambient nano and ultrafine particles from motor vehicle emissions: characteristics, ambient processing and implications on human exposure. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:8113-8138.
76. Nel A. Air pollution-related illness: effects of particles. Science 2005, 308:804-806.
77. Nieuwenhuijsen M.J., Gómez-Perales J.E., Colvile R.N. Levels of particulate air pollution, its elemental composition, determinants and health effects in metro systems. Atmospheric Environment 2007, 41:7995-8006.
78. Nystrom A.K., Svartengren M., Grunewald J., Pousette C., Rodin I., Lundin A., Skold C.M., Eklund A., Larsson B.M. Health effects of a subway environment in healthy volunteers. European Respiratory Journal 2010, 36:240-248.
79. Ott W., Eliassen R. A survey technique for determining the representativeness of urban air monitoring stations with respect to carbon monoxide. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 1973, 23:685-690.
80. Ott W., Klepeis N., Switzer P. Air change rates of motor vehicles and in-vehicle pollutant concentrations from secondhand smoke. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 2008, 18:312-325.
81. Ott W.R. Total human exposure. Environmental Science & Technology 1985, 19:880-886.
82. Pattinson, W.J., 2009. Cyclist exposure to traffic pollution: microscale variance, the impact of route choice and comparisons to other modal choices in two New Zealand cities. MSc Thesis, University of Canterbury, Available online: (accessed 11.12.10). http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/10092/3687/1/thesis_fulltext.pdf.
83. Peters A., von Klot S., Heier M., Trentinaglia I., Hormann A., Wichmann H.E., Lowel H. Exposure to traffic and the onset of myocardial infarction. The New England Journal of Medicine 2004, 351:1721-1730.
84. Phalen R.F., Oldham M.J., Nel A.E. Tracheobronchial particle dose considerations for in vitro toxicology studies. Toxicological Sciences 2006, 92:126-132.
85. Pooley C., Whyatt D., Walker M., Davies G., Coulton P., Bamford W. Understanding the school journey: integrating data on travel and environment. Environment and Planning A 2010, 42:948-965.
86. Pui D.Y.H., Qi C., Stanley N., Oberdörster G. Recirculating air filtration significantly reduces exposure to airborne nanoparticles. Environmental Health Perspectives 2008, 116:863-866.
87. Qi C., Stanley N., Pui D.Y.H., Kuehn T.H. Laboratory and on-road evaluations of cabin air filters using number and surface area concentration monitors. Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42:4128-4132.
88. Raut J.C., Chazette P., Fortain A. Link between aerosol optical, microphysical and chemical measurements in an underground railway station in Paris. Atmospheric Environment 2009, 43:860-868.
89. Riediker M., Cascio W.E., Griggs T.R., Herbst M.C., Bromberg P.A., Neas L., Williams R.W., Devlin R.B. Particulate matter exposure in cars is associated with cardiovascular effects in healthy young men. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2004, 169:934-940.
90. Rim D., Siegel J., Spinhirne J., Webb A., McDonald-Buller E. Characteristics of cabin air quality in school buses in Central Texas. Atmospheric Environment 2008, 42:6453-6464.
91. Ristovski Z.D., Jayaratne E.R., Lim M., Ayoko G.A., Morawska L. Influence of diesel fuel sulfur on nanoparticle emissions from city buses. Environmental Science & Technology 2006, 40:1314-1320.
92. Saksena S., Prasad R.K., Shankar V.R. Daily exposure to air pollutants in indoor, outdoor and in-vehicle microenvironments: a pilot study in Delhi. Indoor and Built Environment 2007, 16:39-46.
93. Saksena S., Quang T.N., Nguyen T., Dang P.N., Flachsbart P. Commuters' exposure to particulate matter and carbon monoxide in Hanoi, Vietnam. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 2008, 13:206-211.
94. Samet J.M., Rappold A., Graff D., Cascio W.E., Berntsen J.H., Huang Y.C.T., Herbst M., Bassett M., Montilla T., Hazucha M.J., Bromberg P.A., Devlin R.B. Concentrated ambient ultrafine particle exposure induces cardiac changes in young healthy volunteers. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 2009, 179:1034-1042.
95. Seaton A., Cherrie J., Dennekamp M., Donaldson K., Hurley J.F., Tran C.L. The London underground: dust and hazards to health. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2005, 62:355-362.
96. Shrestha, K., 2009. An assessment of the contribution of micro-scale activities to personal pollution exposure in commuting microenvironments. MSc Thesis, University of Canterbury. Available online: (accessed 11.12.10). http://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/10092/3686/1/thesis_fulltext.pdf.
97. Strak M., Boogaard H., Meliefste K., Oldenwening M., Zuurbier M., Brunekreef B., Hoek G. Respiratory health effects of ultrafine and fine particle exposure in cyclists. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2010, 67:118-124.
98. Stölzel M., Breitner S., Cyrys J., Pitz M., Wolke G., Kreyling W., Heinrich J., Wichmann H.E., Peters A. Daily mortality and particulate matter in different size classes in Erfurt, Germany. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 2007, 17:458-467.
99. Su J.G., Morello-Frosch R., Jesdale B.M., Kyle A.D., Shamasunder B., Jerrett M. An index for assessing demographic inequalities in cumulative environmental hazards with application to Los Angeles, California. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43:7626-7634.
100. Thai A., McKendry I., Brauer M. Particulate matter exposure along designated bicycle routes in Vancouver, British Columbia. Science of the Total Environment 2008, 405:26-35.
101. Tonne C., Beevers S., Armstrong B.G., Kelly F., Wilkinson P. Air pollution and mortality benefits of the London Congestion Charge: spatial and socioeconomic inequalities. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 2008, 65:620-627.
102. Vinzents P.S., Moller P., Sorensen M., Knudsen L.E., Hertel O., Jensen F.P., Schibye B., Loft S. Personal exposure to ultrafine particles and oxidative DNA damage. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005, 113:1485-1490.
103. Wallace L., Ott W. Personal exposure to ultrafine particles. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 2011, 21:20-30.
104. Weichenthal S., Dufresne A., Infante-Rivard C. Indoor ultrafine particles and childhood asthma: exploring a potential public health concern. Indoor Air 2007, 17:81-91.
105. Weichenthal S., Dufresne A., Infante-Rivard C., Joseph L. Determinants of ultrafine particle exposures in transportation environments: findings of an 8-month survey conducted in Montreal, Canada. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 2008, 18:551-563.
106. Weisel C.P. Transportation. Indoor Air Quality Handbook 2001, 68.1-68.20. McGraw-Hill, New York. Spengler, Samet, McCarthy (Eds.).
107. Westerdahl D., Fruin S., Sax T., Fine P.M., Sioutas C. Mobile platform measurements of ultrafine particles and associated pollutant concentrations on freeways and residential streets in Los Angeles. Atmospheric Environment 2005, 39:3597-3610.
108. Wichmann H.E., Peters A. Epidemiological evidence of the effects of ultrafine particle exposure. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 2000, 358:2751-2769.
109. Xu B., Zhu Y. Quantitative analysis of the parameters affecting in-cabin to on-roadway (I/O) ultrafine particle concentration ratios. Aerosol Science and Technology 2009, 43:400-410.
110. Xu B., Liu S., Zhu Y. Ultrafine particle penetration through idealized vehicle cracks. Journal of Aerosol Science 2010, 41:859-868.
111. Zhang Q., Zhu Y. Measurements of ultrafine particles and other vehicular pollutants inside school buses in South Texas. Atmospheric Environment 2010, 44:253-261.
112. Zhu Y., Eiguren-Fernandez A., Hinds W.C., Miguel A.H. In-cabin commuter exposure to ultrafine particles on Los Angeles freeways. Environmental Science & Technology 2007, 41:2138-2145.
113. Zhu Y., Fung D., Kennedy N., Hinds W.C., Eiguren-Fernandez A. Measurements of ultrafine particles and other vehicular pollutants inside a mobile exposure system on Los Angeles freeways. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 2008, 58:424-434.
114. Zuurbier M., Hoek G., Van den Hazel P., Brunekreef B. Minute ventilation of cyclists, car and bus passengers: an experimental study. Environmental Health 2009, 8:48.
115. Zuurbier M., Hoek G., Oldenwening M., Lenters V., Meliefste K., van den Hazel P., Brunekreef B. Commuters' exposure to particulate matter air pollution is affected by mode of transport, fuel type, and route. Environmental Health Perspectives 2010, 118:783-789.
116. Zuurbier M., Hoek G., Oldenwening M., Meliefste K., van den Hazel P., Brunekreef B. Respiratory effects of commuters' exposure to air pollution in traffic. Epidemiology 2011, 22:219-227.