Sepsis and Related Considerations

Pediatric Surgery: Sixth Edition

Volumn 1-2, Issue , 2006, Pages 156-177

  Upperman, Jeffrey S ^a,b   Ford, Henri R ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b CHILDREN S HOSPITAL LOS ANGELES   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79954469058     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-323-02842-4.50013-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (158)

1. Abraham E Alterations in transcriptional regulation of proinflammatory and immunoregulatory cytokine expression by hemorrhage, injury, and critical illness. New Horiz 1996, 4:184-193.
2. Acunas BA, Peakman M, Liossis G, et al. Effect of fresh frozen plasma and gammaglobulin on humoral immunity in neonatal sepsis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1994, 70:F182-F187.
3. Albelda SM, Smith CW, Ward PA Adhesion molecules and inflammatory injury. FASEB J 1994, 8:504-512.
4. Albina JE, Cui S, Mateo RB, Reichner JS Nitric oxide-mediated apoptosis in murine peritoneal macrophages. J Immunol 1993, 150:5080-5085.
5. Ambruso DR, Altenburger KM, Johnston RB Defective oxidative metabolism in newborn neutrophils: Discrepancy between superoxide anion and hydroxyl radical generation. Pediatrics 1979, 64(Suppl):722-725.
6. Anderson DC, Abbassi O, Kishimoto TK, et al. Diminished lectin-, epidermal growth factor-, complement binding domain-cell adhesion molecule-1 on neonatal neutrophils underlies their impaired CD18-independent adhesion to endothelial cells in vitro. J Immunol 1991, 146:3372-3379.
7. Ar'Rajab A, Dawidson I, Fabia R Reperfusion injury. New Horiz 1996, 4:224-234.
8. Arnaout MA Leukocyte adhesion molecules deficiency: Its structural basis, pathophysiology and implications for modulating the inflammatory response. Immunol Rev 1990, 114:145-180.
9. Arnould T, Michiels C, Remacle J Increased PMN adherence on endothelial cells after hypoxia: Involvement of PAF, CD18/CD11b, and ICAM-1. Am J Physiol 1993, 264:C1102-C1110.
10. Astiz ME, Rackow EC, Still JG, et al. Pretreatment of normal humans with monophosphoryl lipid A induces tolerance to endotoxin: A prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:9-17.
11. Bajzar L, Kalafatis M, Simioni P, Tracy PB An antifibrinolytic mechanism describing the prothrombotic effect associated with factor V Leiden. J Biol Chem 1996, 271:22949-22952.
12. Beal AL, Cerra FB Multiple organ failure syndrome in the 1990s: Systemic inflammatory response and organ dysfunction. JAMA 1994, 271:226-233.
13. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al. Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) Study group. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2001, 344:699-709.
14. Bevilacqua MP, Nelson RM Selectins. J Clin Invest 1993, 91:379-387.
15. Boehmer ED, Goral J, Faunce DE, Kovacs EJ Age-dependent decrease in Toll-like receptor 4-mediated proinflammatory cytokine production and mitogen-activated protein kinase expression. J Leukoc Biol 2004, 75:342-349.
16. Bone RC Sepsis and its complications: The clinical problem. Crit Care Med 1994, 22(Suppl):S8-S11.
17. Bone RC, Balk RA, Fein AM, et al. A second large controlled clinical study of E5, a monoclonal antibody to endotoxin: Results of a prospective, multicenter, randomized, controlled trial. The E5 Sepsis Study Group. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:994-1006.
18. Bone RC, Fisher CJ, Clemmer TP, et al. A controlled clinical trial of high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 1987, 317:653-658.
19. Buck C, Bundschu J, Gallati H, et al. Interleukin-6: A sensitive parameter for the early diagnosis of neonatal bacterial infection. Pediatrics 1994, 93:54-58.
20. Carcillo JA, Davis AL, Zaritsky A Role of early fluid resuscitation in pediatric septic shock. JAMA 1991, 266:1242-1245.
21. Casey LC, Balk RA, Bone RC Plasma cytokine and endotoxin levels correlate with survival in patients with the sepsis syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1993, 119:771-778.
22. Chan J, Xing Y, Magliozzo RS, Bloom BR Killing of virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis by reactive nitrogen intermediates produced by activated murine macrophages. J Exp Med 1992, 175:1111-1122.
23. Cher DJ, Mosmann TR Two types of murine helper T cell clone. II. Delayed-type hypersensitivity is mediated by TH1 clones. J Immunol 1987, 138:3688-3694.
24. Christensen RD Hematopoiesis in the fetus and neonate. Pediatr Res 1989, 26:531-535.
25. Christensen RD, Rothstein G Exhaustion of mature marrow neutrophils in neonates with sepsis. J Pediatr 1980, 96:316-318.
26. Cinat M, Waxman K, Vaziri ND, et al. Soluble cytokine receptors and receptor antagonists are sequentially released after trauma. J Trauma 1995, 39:112-118.
27. Clegg S, Gerlach GF Enterobacterial fimbriae. J Bacteriol 1987, 169:934-938.
28. Crow JP, Beckman JS Reactions between nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: Footprints of peroxynitrite in vivo. Adv Pharmacol 1995, 34:17-43.
29. Danner RL, Elin RJ, Hosseini JM, et al. Endotoxemia in human septic shock. Chest 1991, 99:169-175.
30. de Fouw NJ, van Tilburg NH, Haverkate F, Bertina RM Activated protein C accelerates clot lysis by virtue of its anticoagulant activity. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 1993, 4:201-210.
31. De Groote MA, Fang FC NO inhibitions: Antimicrobial properties of nitric oxide. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 21(Suppl 2):S162-S165.
32. De Groote MA, Granger D, Xu Y, et al. Genetic and redox determinants of nitric oxide cytotoxicity in a Salmonella typhimurium model. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1995, 92:6399-6403.
33. Deitch EA, Rutan R, Waymack JP Trauma, shock, and gut translocation. New Horiz 1996, 4:289-299.
34. Deitch EA, Specian RD, Berg RD Endotoxin-induced bacterial translocation and mucosal permeability: Role of xanthine oxidase, complement activation, and macrophage products. Crit Care Med 1991, 19:785-791.
35. Dhainaut JF, Vincent JL, Richard C, et al. CDP571, a humanized antibody to human tumor necrosis factor-alpha: Safety, pharmacokinetics, immune response, and influence of the antibody on cytokine concentrations in patients with septic shock. CPD571 Sepsis Study Group. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:1461-1469.
36. Dillon HC, Khare S, Gray BM Group B streptococcal carriage and disease: A 6-year prospective study. J Pediatr 1987, 110:31-36.
37. Ding A, Nathan C, Stuehr D Release of reactive nitrogen intermediates and reactive oxygen intermediates from mouse peritoneal macrophages: Comparison of activating cytokines and evidence for independent production. J Immunol 1988, 141:2407.
38. Ding J, Badwey JA Neutrophils stimulated with a chemotactic peptide or a phorbol ester exhibit different alterations in the activities of a battery of protein kinases. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:5234-5240.
39. Duke T, South M, Stewart A Activation of the l-arginine nitric oxide pathway in severe sepsis. Arch Dis Child 1997, 76:203-209.
40. Effect of high-dose glucocorticoid therapy on mortality in patients with clinical signs of systemic sepsis. The Veterans Administration Systemic Sepsis Cooperative Study Group. N Engl J Med 1987, 317:659-665.
41. Ehlers S, Smith KA Differentiation of T cell lymphokine gene expression: The in vitro acquisition of T cell memory. J Exp Med 1991, 173:25-36.
42. English BK, Burchett SK, English JD, et al. Production of lymphotoxin and tumor necrosis factor by human neonatal mononuclear cells. Pediatr Res 1988, 24:717-722.
43. Ertel W, Keel M, Bonaccio M, et al. Release of anti-inflammatory mediators after mechanical trauma correlates with severity of injury and clinical outcome. J Trauma 1995, 39:879-885.
44. Etzioni A, Doerschuk CM, Harlan JM Of man and mouse: Leukocyte and endothelial adhesion molecule deficiencies. Blood 1999, 94:3281-3288.
45. Fanaroff AA, Korones SB, Wright LL, et al. A controlled trial of intravenous immune globulin to reduce nosocomial infections in very-low-birth-weight infants. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Research Network. N Engl J Med 1994, 330:1107-1113.
46. Ferrieri P Neonatal susceptibility and immunity to major bacterial pathogens. Rev Infect Dis 1990, 12(Suppl 4):S394-S400.
47. Fijnvandraat K, Derkx B, Peters M, et al. Coagulation activation and tissue necrosis in meningococcal septic shock: Severely reduced protein C levels predict a high mortality. Thromb Haemost 1995, 73:15-20.
48. Finlay BB, Falkow S Common themes in microbial pathogenicity. Microbiol Rev 1989, 53:210-230.
49. Finlay BB, Falkow S Salmonella interactions with polarized human intestinal Caco-2 epithelial cells. J Infect Dis 1990, 162:1096-1106.
50. Fisher CJ, Dhainaut JF, Opal SM, et al. Recombinant human interleukin 1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of patients with sepsis syndrome: Results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Phase III rhIL-1ra Sepsis Syndrome Study Group. JAMA 1994, 271:1836-1843.
51. Fisher CJ, Marra MN, Palardy JE, et al. Human neutrophil bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein reduces mortality rate from endotoxin challenge: A placebo-controlled study. Crit Care Med 1994, 22:553-558.
52. Gazzinelli RT, Hieny S, Wynn TA, et al. Interleukin 12 is required for the T-lymphocyte-independent induction of interferon gamma by an intracellular parasite and induces resistance in T-cell-deficient hosts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993, 90:6115-6119.
53. Gibson RL, Redding GJ, Henderson WR, Truog WE Group B streptococcus induces tumor necrosis factor in neonatal piglets: Effect of the tumor necrosis factor inhibitor pentoxifylline on hemodynamics and gas exchange. Am Rev Respir Dis 1991, 143:598-604.
54. Giroir BP Mediators of septic shock: New approaches for interrupting the endogenous inflammatory cascade. Crit Care Med 1993, 21:780-789.
55. Goris RJ, te Boekhorst TP, Nuytinck JK, Gimbrere JS Multiple-organ failure: Generalized autodestructive inflammation?. Arch Surg 1985, 120:1109-1115.
56. Gray ED, Peters G, Verstegen M, Regelmann WE Effect of extracellular slime substance from Staphylococcus epidermidis on the human cellular immune response. Lancet 1984, 1:365-367.
57. Grey ST, Tsuchida A, Hau H, et al. Selective inhibitory effects of the anticoagulant activated protein C on the responses of human mononuclear phagocytes to LPS, IFN-gamma, or phorbol ester. J Immunol 1994, 153:3664-3672.
58. Grinnell BW, Hermann RB, Yan SB Human protein C inhibits selectin-mediated cell adhesion: Role of unique fucosylated oligosaccharide. Glycobiology 1994, 4:221-225.
59. Gruber A, Hanson SR, Kelly AB, et al. Inhibition of thrombus formation by activated recombinant protein C in a primate model of arterial thrombosis. Circulation 1990, 82:578-585.
60. Hack CE, Zeerleder S The endothelium in sepsis: Source of and a target for inflammation. Crit Care Med 2001, 29(Suppl):S21-S27.
61. Han J, Thompson P, Beutler B Dexamethasone and pentoxifylline inhibit endotoxin-induced cachectin/tumor necrosis factor synthesis at separate points in the signaling pathway. J Exp Med 1990, 172:391-394.
62. Han YY, Carcillo JA, Dragotta MA, et al. Early reversal of pediatric-neonatal septic shock by community physicians is associated with improved outcome. Pediatrics 2003, 112:793-799.
63. Hancock WW, Grey ST, Hau L, et al. Binding of activated protein C to a specific receptor on human mononuclear phagocytes inhibits intracellular calcium signaling and monocyte-dependent proliferative responses. Transplantation 1995, 60:1525-1532.
64. Harlan JM Leukocyte adhesion deficiency syndrome: Insights into the molecular basis of leukocyte emigration. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 1993, 67(Suppl):S16-S24.
65. Hauser CJ Regional macrophage activation after injury and the compartmentalization of inflammation in trauma. New Horiz 1996, 4:235-251.
66. Hayes MP, Berrebi GA, Henkart PA Induction of target cell DNA release by the cytotoxic T lymphocyte granule protease granzyme A. J Exp Med 1989, 170:933-946.
67. Hill HR Biochemical, structural, and functional abnormalities of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in the neonate. Pediatr Res 1987, 22:375-382.
68. Hogg N, Darley-Usmar VM, Wilson MT, Moncada S Production of hydroxyl radicals from the simultaneous generation of superoxide and nitric oxide. Biochem J 1992, 281:419-424.
69. Huber AR, Kunkel SL, Todd RF, Weiss SJ Regulation of transendothelial neutrophil migration by endogenous interleukin-8. Science 1991, 254:99-102.
70. Isberg RR, Tran Van Nhieu G Binding and internalization of microorganisms by integrin receptors. Trends Microbiol 1994, 2:10-14.
71. Iwama A, Wang MH, Yamaguchi N, et al. Terminal differentiation of murine resident peritoneal macrophages is characterized by expression of the STK protein tyrosine kinase, a receptor for macrophage-stimulating protein. Blood 1995, 86:3394-3403.
72. Jackson DE The unfolding tale of PECAM-1. FEBS Lett 2003, 540:7-14.
73. Jones SA, Horiuchi S, Topley N, et al. The soluble interleukin 6 receptor: Mechanisms of production and implications in disease. FASEB J 2001, 15:43-58.
74. Joyce DE, Gelbert L, Ciaccia A, et al. Gene expression profile of antithrombotic protein C defines new mechanisms modulating inflammation and apoptosis. J Biol Chem 2001, 276:11199-11203.
75. Kaplan J, Shope TC, Bollinger RO, Smith J Human newborns are deficient in natural killer activity. J Clin Immunol 1982, 2:350-355.
76. Kaplan SS, Lancaster JR, Basford RE, Simmons RL Effect of nitric oxide on staphylococcal killing and interactive effect with superoxide. Infect Immun 1996, 64:69-76.
77. Kern J, Lamb R, Reed J, et al. Dexamethasone inhibition of interleukin-1 beta production by human monocytes: Post-transcriptional mechanisms. J Clin Invest 1988, 81:237.
78. Koefoed-Johnsen V, Ussing HH The nature of the frog skin potential. Acta Physiol Scand 1958, 42:298-308.
79. Kolesnick R, Golde DW The sphingomyelin pathway in tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 signaling. Cell 1994, 77:325-328.
80. Krebs DL, Hilton DJ SOCS: Physiological suppressors of cytokine signaling. J Cell Sci 2000, 113:2813-2819.
81. Leonard EJ, Skeel A A serum protein that stimulates macrophage movement, chemotaxis and spreading. Exp Cell Res 1976, 102:434-438.
82. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit Care Med 2003, 31:1250-1256.
83. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Intensive Care Med 2003, 29:530-538.
84. Lewis DB, Yu CC, Meyer J, et al. Cellular and molecular mechanisms for reduced interleukin 4 and interferon-gamma production by neonatal T cells. J Clin Invest 1991, 87:194-202.
85. Lipton SA, Choi YB, Pan ZH, et al. A redox-based mechanism for the neuroprotective and neurodestructive effects of nitric oxide and related nitroso-compounds. Nature 1993, 364:626-632.
86. Lowry SF Anticytokine therapies in sepsis. New Horiz 1993, 1:120-126.
87. Machleidt T, Wiegmann K, Henkel T, et al. Sphingomyelinase activates proteolytic I kappa B-alpha degradation in a cell-free system. J Biol Chem 1994, 269:13760-13765.
88. Maier RV, Bulger EM Endothelial changes after shock and injury. New Horiz 1996, 4:211-223.
89. Marlar RA, Kleiss AJ, Griffin JH Human protein C: Inactivation of factors V and VIII in plasma by the activated molecule. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1981, 370:303-310.
90. Marra MN, Thornton MB, Snable JL, et al. Endotoxin-binding and -neutralizing properties of recombinant bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein and monoclonal antibodies HA-1A and E5. Crit Care Med 1994, 22:559-565.
91. Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:1546-1554.
92. Masson D, Tschopp J A family of serine esterases in lytic granules of cytolytic T lymphocytes. Cell 1987, 49:679-685.
93. McCloskey RV, Straube RC, Sanders C, et al. Treatment of septic shock with human monoclonal antibody HA-1A: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CHESS Trial Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1994, 121:1-5.
94. McDonald T, Sneed J, Valenski WR, et al. Natural killer cell activity in very low birth weight infants. Pediatr Res 1992, 31:376-380.
95. McGill SN, Ahmed NA, Hu F, et al. Shedding of L-selectin as a mechanism for reduced polymorphonuclear neutrophil exudation in patients with the systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Arch Surg 1996, 131:1141-1146.
96. Mileski W, Borgstrom D, Lightfoot E, et al. Inhibition of leukocyte-endothelial adherence following thermal injury. J Surg Res 1992, 52:334-339.
97. Miller ME Phagocyte function in the neonate: Selected aspects. Pediatrics 1979, 64(Suppl):S709-S712.
98. Miller VL, Falkow S Evidence for two genetic loci in Yersinia enterocolitica that can promote invasion of epithelial cells. Infect Immun 1988, 56:1242-1248.
99. Muller W, Weigl S, Deng X, Phillips DM PECAM-1 is required for transendothelial migration of leukocytes. J Exp Med 1993, 178:449-460.
100. Muller WA The role of PECAM-1 (CD31) in leukocyte emigration: Studies in vitro and in vivo. J Leukoc Biol 1995, 57:523-528.
101. Muller WA Migration of leukocytes across endothelial junctions: Some concepts and controversies. Microcirculation 2001, 8:181-193.
102. Murray HW, Spitalny GL, Nathan CF Activation of mouse peritoneal macrophages in vitro and in vivo by interferon-gamma. J Immunol 1985, 134:1619-1622.
103. Mustafa MM, Ramilo O, Saez-Llorens X, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid prostaglandins, interleukin 1 beta, and tumor necrosis factor in bacterial meningitis: Clinical and laboratory correlations in placebo-treated and dexamethasone-treated patients. Am J Dis Child 1990, 144:883-887.
104. Nathan C Nitric oxide as secretory product of mammalian cells. FASEB J 1992, 6:3051-3064.
105. Nathan C Natural resistance and nitric oxide. Cell 1995, 82:873-876.
106. Nguyen T, Brunson D, Crespi CL, et al. DNA damage and mutation in human cells exposed to nitric oxide in vitro. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992, 89:3030-3034.
107. O'Brien CD, Lim P, Sun J, Albelda SM PECAM-1-dependent neutrophil transmigration is independent of monolayer PECAM-1 signaling or localization. Blood 2003, 101:2816-2825.
108. Odio CM, Faingezicht I, Paris M, et al. The beneficial effects of early dexamethasone administration in infants and children with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:1525-1531.
109. Pacelli R, Wink DA, Cook JA, et al. Nitric oxide potentiates hydrogen peroxide-induced killing of Escherichia coli. J Exp Med 1995, 182:1469-1479.
110. Parrillo JE, Parker MM, Natanson C, et al. Septic shock in humans: Advances in the understanding of pathogenesis, cardiovascular dysfunction, and therapy. Ann Intern Med 1990, 113:227-242.
111. Partrick DA, Moore FA, Moore EE, et al. Neutrophil priming and activation in the pathogenesis of postinjury multiple organ failure. New Horiz 1996, 4:194-210.
112. Peters G, Locci R, Pulverer G Adherence and growth of coagulase-negative staphylococci on surfaces of intravenous catheters. J Infect Dis 1982, 146:479-482.
113. Philip AG, Hewitt JR Early diagnosis of neonatal sepsis. Pediatrics 1980, 65:1036-1041.
114. Podack ER, Young JD, Cohn ZA Isolation and biochemical and functional characterization of perforin 1 from cytolytic T-cell granules. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1985, 82:8629-8633.
115. Raghunathan R, Miller ME, Everett S, Leake RD Phagocyte chemotaxis in the perinatal period. J Clin Immunol 1982, 2:242-245.
116. Refsum SE, Halliday MI, Campbell G, et al. Modulation of TNF alpha and IL-6 in a peritonitis model using pentoxifylline. J Pediatr Surg 1996, 31:928-930.
117. Rogy MA, Moldawer LL, Oldenburg HS, et al. Anti-endotoxin therapy in primate bacteremia with HA-1A and BPI. Ann Surg 1994, 220:77-85.
118. Rollins BJ, Sunday ME Suppression of tumor formation in vivo by expression of the JE gene in malignant cells. Mol Cell Biol 1991, 11:3125-3131.
119. Rosengren S, Olofsson AM, von Andrian UH, et al. Leukotriene B4-induced neutrophil-mediated endothelial leakage in vitro and in vivo. J Appl Physiol 1991, 71:1322-1330.
120. Scannell G Leukocyte responses to hypoxic/ischemic conditions. New Horiz 1996, 4:179-183.
121. Schade UF Pentoxifylline increases survival in murine endotoxin shock and decreases formation of tumor necrosis factor. Circ Shock 1990, 31:171-181.
122. Schoedon G, Schneemann M, Walter R, et al. Nitric oxide and infection: Another view. Clin Infect Dis 1995, 21(Suppl 2):S152-S157.
123. Scott P IL-12: Initiation cytokine for cell-mediated immunity. Science 1993, 260:496-497.
124. Scott P, Kaufmann SH The role of T-cell subsets and cytokines in the regulation of infection. Immunol Today 1991, 12:346-348.
125. Shenep JL, Flynn PM, Barrett FF, et al. Serial quantitation of endotoxemia and bacteremia during therapy for gram-negative bacterial sepsis. J Infect Dis 1988, 157:565-568.
126. Smith JB, Kunjummen RD, Kishimoto TK, Anderson DC Expression and regulation of L-selectin on eosinophils from human adults and neonates. Pediatr Res 1992, 32:465-471.
127. Snyderman R, Goetzl EJ Molecular and cellular mechanisms of leukocyte chemotaxis. Science 1981, 213:830-837.
128. Snyderman R, Pike MC Chemoattractant receptors on phagocytic cells. Annu Rev Immunol 1984, 2:257-281.
129. Squire E, Favara B, Todd J Diagnosis of neonatal bacterial infection: Hematologic and pathologic findings in fatal and nonfatal cases. Pediatrics 1979, 64:60-64.
130. St Gene J, Polin R Neonatal sepsis: Progress in diagnosis and management. Drugs 1988, 36:784-800.
131. Stamler JS Redox signaling: Nitrosylation and related target interactions of nitric oxide. Cell 1994, 78:931-936.
132. Stuber F, Petersen M, Bokelmann F, Schade U A genomic polymorphism within the tumor necrosis factor locus influences plasma tumor necrosis factor-alpha concentrations and outcome of patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 1996, 24:381-384.
133. Sullivan JS, Kilpatrick L, Costarino AT, et al. Correlation of plasma cytokine elevations with mortality rate in children with sepsis. J Pediatr 1992, 120:510-515.
134. Tracy K Tumor necrosis factor (cachectin) in the biology of septic shock syndrome. Circ Shock 1991, 35:123.
135. Upperman JS, Pillage G, Siddiqi MQ, et al: Dominance of high-producing IL-6 and low-producing IL-10 and IFNγ alleles in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficient trauma patients. Shock (in press).
136. van Hinsbergh VW, Bertina RM, van Wijngaarden A, et al. Activated protein C decreases plasminogen activator-inhibitor activity in endothelial cell-conditioned medium. Blood 1985, 65:444-451.
137. VanFurth R, Hirsh J, Fedurko M Morphology and peroxidase cytochemistry of mouse promonocytes, monocytes, and macrophages. J Exp Med 1970, 132:794.
138. Vannier E, Miller L, Dinarello C Coordinated anti-inflammatory effects of interleukin 4: Interleukin 4 suppresses interleukin1 but up-regulates gene expression and synthesis of interleukin1 receptor antagonist. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992, 89:4076-4080.
139. 2-integrin-mediated neutrophil adhesion at physiologic shear rates in vivo. Am J Physiol 1992, 263:H1034-H1044.
140. Walker RI, Willemze R Neutrophil kinetics and the regulation of granulopoiesis. Rev Infect Dis 1980, 2:282-292.
141. Warren MK, Vogel SN Opposing effects of glucocorticoids on interferon-gamma-induced murine macrophage Fc receptor and Ia antigen expression. J Immunol 1985, 134:2462-2469.
142. Watson RS, Carcillo JA, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. The epidemiology of severe sepsis in children in the United States. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003, 167:695-701.
143. Waxman K Shock: Ischemia, reperfusion, and inflammation. New Horiz 1996, 4:153-160.
144. Waxman K What mediates tissue injury after shock?. N Horiz 1996, 4:151-152.
145. Weiss SJ Tissue destruction by neutrophils. N Engl J Med 1989, 320:365-376.
146. West MA, Wilson C Hypoxic alterations in cellular signal transduction in shock and sepsis. New Horiz 1996, 4:168-178.
147. Willatts SM, Radford S, Leitermann M Effect of the antiendotoxic agent, taurolidine, in the treatment of sepsis syndrome: A placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:1033-1039.
148. Wilson CB Immunologic basis for increased susceptibility of the neonate to infection. J Pediatr 1986, 108:1-12.
149. Wilson RF Special problems in the diagnosis and treatment of surgical sepsis. Surg Clin North Am 1985, 65:965-989.
150. Wong HR, Carcillo JA, Burckart G, et al. Increased serum nitrite and nitrate concentrations in children with the sepsis syndrome. Crit Care Med 1995, 23:835-842.
151. Wright SD, Ramos RA, Tobias PS, et al. CD14, a receptor for complexes of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and LPS binding protein. Science 1990, 249:1431-1433.
152. Wunderink RG, Waterer GW Genetics of sepsis and pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 2003, 9:384-389.
153. Yang Z, Costanzo M, Golde DW, Kolesnick RN Tumor necrosis factor activation of the sphingomyelin pathway signals nuclear factor kappa B translocation in intact HL-60 cells. J Biol Chem 1993, 268:20520-20523.
154. Yoshimura T, Yuhki N, Moore SK, et al. Human monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1): Full-length cDNA cloning, expression in mitogen-stimulated blood mononuclear leukocytes, and sequence similarity to mouse competence gene JE. FEBS Lett 1989, 244:487-493.
155. Zabel P, Wolter DT, Schonharting MM, Schade UF Oxpentifylline in endotoxaemia. Lancet 1989, 2:1474-1477.
156. Zhong W, Chavali S, Utsunomiya T, et al. Cytokine regulation by a β-adrenergic agonist improves mortality in mice with severe endotoxemia. Surg Forum 1995, 46:99-101.
157. Ziegler EJ, Fisher CJ, Sprung CL, et al. Treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. The HA-1A Sepsis Study Group. N Engl J Med 1991, 324:429-436.
158. Zingarelli B, O'Connor M, Wong H, et al. Peroxynitrite-mediated DNA strand breakage activates poly-adenosine diphosphate ribosyl synthetase and causes cellular energy depletion in macrophages stimulated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol 1996, 156:350-358.