Saharan and Asian dust: Similarities and differences determined by CALIPSO, AERONET, and a coupled climate-aerosol microphysical model

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 11, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 3263-3280

  Su, L ^a   Toon, O B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; BOUNDARY LAYER; CALIPSO; DUST; METEOROLOGY; NUMERICAL MODEL; RAINFALL; SEDIMENTATION; SIZE DISTRIBUTION; WIND; WIND VELOCITY;

SAHARA;

EID: 79953743019     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-11-3263-2011     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Ackerman, A. S., Hobbs, P. V., and Toon, O. B.: A model for particle microphysics, turbulent mixing, and radiative transfer in the stratocumulus-topped marine boundary layer and comparisons with measurements, J. Atmos. Sci., 52, 1204-1236, 1995. (Pubitemid 26438099)
2. Arellano Jr., A. F., Raeder, K., Anderson, J. L., Hess, P. G., Em-mons, L. K., Edwards, D. P., Pfister, G. G., Campos, T. L., and Sachse, G. W.: Evaluating model performance of an ensemble-based chemical data assimilation system during INTEX-B field mission, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5695-5710, doi:10.5194/acp-7-5695-2007, 2007. (Pubitemid 350136900)
3. Barth M. C., Rasch, P. J., Kiehl, J. T., Benkovitz, C. M., and Schwartz, S. E.: Sulfur chemistry in the National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Climate Model: Description, evaluation, features, and sensitivity to aqueous chemistry, J. Geo-phys. Res., 105, 387-1415, 2000.
4. Betzer, P. R., Carder, K. L., Duce, R. A., Merrill, J. T., and Tindale, N. W.: Long-range transport of giant mineral aerosol particles, Nature, 336, 568-571, 1998.
5. Cairo, F., Donfrancesco, G., Adriani, A., Pulvirenti, L., and Fierli, F.: Comparison of Various Linear Depolarization Parameters Measured by Lidar, Appl. Opt., 38, 4425-4432, 1999. (Pubitemid 129570024)
6. Carmichael, G. R., Tang, Y., Kurata, G., Uno, I., Streets, D., Woo, J.-H., Huang, H., Yienger, J., Lefer, B., Shetter, R., Blake, D., Atlas, E., Fried, A., Apel, E., Eisele, F., Cantrell, C., Avery, M., Barrick, J., Sachse, G., Brune, W., Sandholm, S., Kondo, Y., Singh, H., Talbot, R., Bandy, A., Thorton, D., Clarke, A., and Heikes, B.: Regional-scale chemical transport modeling in support of intensive field experiments: Overview and analysis of the TRACE-P observations, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D21), 8823, doi:10.1029/ 2002JD003117, 2003.
7. Chin, M., Ginoux, P., Lucchesi, R., Huebert, B., Weber, E., Anderson, T., Masonis, S., Blomquist, B., Bandy, A., and Thornton, D.: A global aerosol model forecast for the ACE-Asia field experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D23), 8654, doi:10.1029/2003JD003642, 2003.
8. Chin, M., Chu, D. A., Levy, R., Remer, L. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Holben, B. N., Eck, T., and Ginoux, P.: Aerosol distribution in the Northern Hemisphere during ACE-Asia: Results from global model, satellite observations, and Sun photometer measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D23S90, doi:10.1029/ 2004JD004829, 2004. (Pubitemid 40318565)
9. Clarke, A. D., Collins, W. G., Rasch, P. J., Kapustin, V. N., Moore, K., Howell, S., and Fuelberg, H. E.: Dust and pollution transport on global scales: Aerosol measurements and model predictions, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 32555-32569, 2001.
10. Colarco, P. R., Toon, O. B., Torres, O., and Rasch, P. J.: Determining the UV imaginary index of refraction of Saharan dust particles from Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer data using a three-dimensional model of dust transport, J. Geophys. Res., 107(D16), 4312, doi:10.1029/2001JD000903, 2002. (Pubitemid 43206164)
11. Colarco, P. R., Toon, O. B., and Holben, B. N.: Saharan dust transport to the Caribbean during PRIDE: 1. Influence of dust sources and removal mechanisms on the timing and magnitude of downwind aerosol optical depth events from simulations of in situ and remote sensing observations, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8589, doi:10.1029/2002JD002658, 2003a.
12. Colarco, P. R., Toon, O. B., Reid, J. S., Livingston, J. M., Russell, P. B., Redemann, J., Schmid, B., Maring, H. B., Savoie, D., Welton, E. J., Campbell, J. R., Holben, B. N., and Levy, R.: Saharan dust transport to the Caribbean during PRIDE: 2. Transport, vertical profiles, and deposition in simulations of in situ and remote sensing observations, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8590, doi:10.1029/2002JD002659, 2003b.
13. Collins, W. D., Rasch, P. J., Boville, B. A., Hack, J. J., McCaa, J. R., Williamson, D. L., Kiehl, L. T., Briegleb, B., Bitz, C., Lin, S., Zhang, M., and Dai, Y.: Description of the NCAR Community Atmosphere Model (CAM3.0), Technical Report NCAR/TN-464+STR, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, 210 pp., 2004.
14. Cuesta, J., Marsham, J. H., and Parker, D. J.: Flamant C, Dynamical mechanisms controlling the vertical redistribution of dust and the thermodynamic structure of the West Saharan atmospheric boundary layer during summer, Atmos. Sci. Lett., 10, 34-42, 2009.
15. Díaz, J. P., Exposito, F. J., Torres C. J., Carreño, V., and Redondas, A.: Simulation of mineral dust effects on UV-radiation levels, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 4979-4991, 2000.
16. Doherty, O. M., Riemer, N., and Hameed, S.: Saharan mineral dust transport into the Caribbean: Observed atmospheric controls and trends, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D07211, doi:10.1029/2007JD009171, 2008.
17. Draxler, R. R. and Rolph, G. D.: HYSPLIT (Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory) model, Air Resour. Lab., NOAA, Silver Spring, Md. (available at: http://www.arl. noaa.gov/ready/hysplit4.html), 2003.
18. Dubovik, O., Smirnov, A., Holben, B. N., King, M. D., Kaufman, Y. J., and Slutsker, I.: Accuracy assessments of aerosol optical properties retrieved from AERONET sun and sky radiance measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 9791-9806, 2000.
19. Duce, R.: The atmospheric input of trace species to the world ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cycle, 5, 193-259, 1991.
20. Duce, R. A., Unni, C. K., Ray, B. J., Prospero, J. M., and Merrill, J. T.: Long-range atmospheric transport of soil dust from Asia to the tropical North Pacific: temporal variability, Science, 209, 1522-1524, 1980. (Pubitemid 11270081)
21. Dunion, J. P. and Velden, C. S.: The impact of Saharan air layer on Atlantic tropical cyclone activity, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85, 353-365, doi:10.1175/BAMS-85-3-353, 2004.
22. Nowottnick, E., Colarco, P., Ferrare, R., Chen, G., Ismail, S., Anderson, B., and Browell, E.: Online simulations of mineral dust aerosol distributions: Comparisons to NAMMA observations and sensitivity to dust emission parameterization, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D03202, doi:10.1029/2009JD012692, 2010.
23. Eguchi, K., Uno, I., Yumimoto, K., Takemura, T., Shimizu, A., Sug-imoto, N., and Liu, Z.: Trans-pacific dust transport: integrated analysis of NASA/CALIPSO and a global aerosol transport model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3137-3145, doi:10.5194/acp-9-3137-2009, 2009.
24. Fernald, F. G.: Analysis of atmospheric lidar observations: some comments, Appl. Opt., 23, 652-653, 1984.
25. Fernald, F. G., Herman, B. M., and Reagan, J. A.: Determination of aerosol height distributions by lidar, Journal of Atmospheric Meteorology, 11, 482-489, 1972.
26. Ge, J., Su, J., Ackerman, T. P., Fu, Q., Huang, J., and Shi, J.: Dust aerosol optical properties retrieval and radiative forcing over northwestern China during the 2008 China-U.S joint field experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D00K12, doi:10.1029/2009JD013263, 2010.
27. Gillette, D. A. and Passi, R.: Modeling dust emission caused by wind erosion, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 14233-14242, 1988.
28. Gomes, L., Bergametti, G., Coud'e-Gaussen, G., and Rognon, P.: Submicron desert dusts: A sandblasting process, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 13927-13935, 1990.
29. Gong, S. L., Zhang, X. Y., Zhao, T. L., McKendry, I. G., Jaffe, D. A., and Lu, N. M.: Characterization of soil dust aerosol in China and its transport and distribution during 2001 ACE-Asia: 2. Model simulation and validation, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D9), 4262, doi:10.1029/2002JD002633, 2003.
30. Generoso, S., Bey, I., Labonne, M., and Bréon, F. M.: Aerosol vertical distribution in dust outflow over the Atlantic: Comparisons between GEOS-Chem and Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation (CALIPSO), J. Geophys. Res., 113, D24209, doi:10.1029/2008JD010154, 2008.
31. Ginoux, P., Chin, M., Tegen, I., Prospero, J. M., Holben, B., Dubovik, O., and Lin, S. J.:Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model. J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20255-20273, 2001.
32. Grousset, F. E., Ginoux, P., Bory, A., and Biscaye, P. E.: Case study of a Chinese dust pume reaching the French Alps., Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1277, doi:10.029/2002/g1016833, 2003.
33. Haywood, J. M., Allan, R. P., Culverwell, I., Slingo, A., Milton, S. F., Edwards, J. M., and Clerbaux, N.: Can desert dust explain the outgoing longwave radition anomaly over the Sahara during July 2003?, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 110, D05105, doi:10.1029/2004JD005232, 2005. (Pubitemid 40815051)
34. Haywood, J. M., Pelon, J., Formenti, P., Bharmal, N., Brooks, M., Capes, G., Chazette, P., Chou. C., Christopher, S., Coe, H., Cuesta, J., Derimian, Y., Desboeufs, K., Greed, G., Harrison, M., Heese, B., Highwood, E. J., Johnson, B., Mallet, M., Mar-ticorena, B., Marsham, J., Milton, S., Myhre, G., Osborne, S. R., Parker, D. J., Rajot, J. -L., Schulz, M., Slingo, A., Tanre, D., and Tulet, P.: Overview of the Dust and Biomass-burning Experiment and African Monsoon Multidisciplinary Analysis Special Observing Period-0, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C17, doi:10.1029/2008JD010077, 2008.
35. Heese, B. and Wiegner, M.: Vertical aerosol profiles from Raman polarization lidar observations during the dry season AMMA field campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C11, doi:10.1029/2007JD009487, 2008.
36. Heintzenberg, J.: The SAMUM-1 experiment over Southern Morocco: overview and introduction, Tellus, 61, 2-11, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2008.00403.x, 2008.
37. Holben, B. N., Eck, T. F., Slutsker, I., Tanreacute;, D., Buis, J. P., Setzer, A., Vermote, E. F., Reagan, J. A., Kaufman, Y. J., Naka-jima, T., Lavenu, F., Jankowiak, I., and Smirnov, A.: AERONET-A federated instrument network and data archive for aerosol characterization, Remote Sens. Environ., 66, 1-16, 1998. (Pubitemid 29360424)
38. Huang, J., Minnis, P., Yi, Y., Tang, Q., Wang, X., Hu, Y., Liu, Z., Ayers, K., Trepte, C., and Winker, D.: Summer dust aerosols detected from CALIPSO over the Tibetan Plateau, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L18805, doi:10.1029/2007GL029938, 2007. (Pubitemid 350186725)
39. Huang, J., Minnis, P., Chen, B., Huang, Z., Liu, Z., Zhao, Q., Yi, Y., and Ayers, J. K.: Long-range transport and vertical structure of Asian dust from CALIPSO and surface measurements during PACDEX, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D23212, doi:10.1029/2008JD010620, 2008.
40. Huang, J., Fu, Q., Su, J., Tang, Q., Minnis, P., Hu, Y., Yi, Y., and Zhao, Q.: Taklimakan dust aerosol radiative heating derived from CALIPSO observations using the Fu-Liou radiation model with CERES constraints, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 4011-4021, doi:10.5194/acp-9-4011-2009, 2009.
41. Huebert, B. J., Bates, T., Russell, P. B., Shi, G., Kim, Y., Kawamura, K., Carmichael, G., and Nakajima, T.: An overview of ACE-Asia: Strategies for quantifying the relationships between Asian aerosols and their climatic impacts, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D23), 8633, doi:10.1029/2003JD003550, 2003.
42. Husar, R. B., Tratt, D. M., Schichtel, B. A., Falke, S. R., Li, F., Jaffe, D., Gasso, S., Gill, T., Laulainen, N. S., Lu, F., Reheis, M. C., Chun, Y., Westphal, D., Holben, B. N., Gueymard, C., McKendry, I., Kuring, N., Feldman, G. C., McClain, C., Frouin, R. J., Merrill, J., DuBois, D., Vignola, F., Murayama, T., Nickovic, S., Wilson, W. E., Sassen, K., Sugimoto, N., and Malm, W. C.: Asian dust events of April 1998, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18317-18330, 2001.
43. IPCC, Climate Change: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group 1 to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change, edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.
44. Jacob, D. J., Crawford, J. H., Kleb, M. M., Connors, V. S., Bendura, R. J., Raper, J. L., Sachse, G. W., Gille, J. C., Emmons, L., and Heald, C. L.: Transport and Chemical Evolution Over the Pacific (TRACE-P) aircraft mission: Design, execution, and first results, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D20), 9000, doi:10.1029/2002JD003276, 2003. (Pubitemid 350187705)
45. Jensen, E. J., Toon, O. B., Westphal, D. L., Kinne, S., and Heyms-field, A. J.: Microphysical modeling of cirrus: 1.Compari-son with 1986 FIRE IFO measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10421-10442, 1994.
46. Jones, C., Mahowald, N, and Luo, C.: The role of easterly waves on African desert dust transport, J. Clim., 16(22), 3617-3628, 2003. (Pubitemid 38070229)
47. Karyampudi, V. M., Palm, S. P., Reagen, J. A., Fang, H., Grant, W. B., Hoff, R. M., Moulin, C., Pierce, H. F., Torres, O., Browell, E. V., and Melfi, S. H.: Validation of the Saharan dust plume conceptual model using lidar, Meteosat, and ECMWF data, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 80, 1045-1075, 1999. (Pubitemid 129555585)
48. Kaufman, Y. J. and Fraser, R. S.: The effect of smoke particles on cloud and climate forcing, Science, 277, 1636-1639, 1997. (Pubitemid 27446220)
49. Kaufman, Y. J., Tanre, D., Dubovik, O., Karnieli, A., and Remer, L. A.: Absorption of sunlight by dust as Inferred from satellite and ground-based remote sensing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28, 1479-1483, 2001.
50. Kistler, R., Kalnay, E., Collins, W., Saha, S., White, G., Woollen, J., Chelliah, M., Ebisuzaki, W., Kanamitsu, M., Kousky, V., van den Dool, H., Jenne, R., and Fiorino, M.: The NCEP-NCAR 50-year reanalysis: monthly means CD-ROM and documentation, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 82(2), 247-267, 2001. (Pubitemid 33622659)
51. Knippertz, P., Deutscher, C., Kandler, K., Muller, T., Schulz, O., and Schutz, L.: Dust mobilization due to density currents in the Atlas region: Observations from the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment 2006 field campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D21109, doi:10.1029/2007JD008774, 2007.
52. Laurent, B., Marticorena, B., Bergametti, G., and Mei, F.: Modeling mineral dust emissions from Chinese and Mongolian deserts, Global Planet. Change, 52, 121-141, 2006. (Pubitemid 43868060)
53. Lee, E.-H. and Sohn, B.-J.: Examining the impact of wind and surface vegetation on the Asian dust occurrence over three classified source regions, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D06205, doi:10.1029/2008JD010687, 2009.
54. Lin, S.-J. and Rood, R. B. : Multidimensional Flux-Form Semi-Lagrangian Transport Schemes, Mon. Weather Rev., 124(9), 2046-2070, doi:10.1175/1520- 0493(1996)124¡2046:MFFSLT¿2.0.CO;2, 1996. (Pubitemid 126562396)
55. Liu, D., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., Winker, D., and Trepte, C.: A height resolved global view of dust aerosols from the first year CALIPSO lidar measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D16214, doi:10.1029/2007JD009776, 2008.
56. Liu, Z., Sugimoto, N., and Murayama, T.: Extinction-to-backscatter ratio of Asian dust observed by high-spectral- resolution lidar and Raman lidar, Appl. Opt., 41, 2760-2767, 2002. (Pubitemid 34771733)
57. Liu, Z., Hunt, W., Vaughan, M., Hostetler, C., McGill, M., Powell, K., Winker, D., and Hu, Y.: Estimating random errors due to shot noise in backscatter lidar observations, Appl. Opt., 45, 4437-4447, 2006. (Pubitemid 44531315)
58. Liu, Z., Liu, D., Huang, J., Vaughan, M., Uno, I., Sugimoto, N., Kittaka, C., Trepte, C., Wang, Z., Hostetler, C., and Winker, D.: Airborne dust distributions over the Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas derived from the first year of CALIPSO lidar observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 5045-5060, doi:10.5194/acp-8-5045-2008, 2008a.
59. Liu, Z., Omar, A., Vaughan, M., Hair, J., Kittaka, C., Hu, Y., Powell, K., Trepte, C., Winker, D., Hostetler, C., Ferrare, R., and Pierce, R.: CALIPSO lidar observations of the optical properties of Sa-haran dust: A case study of long-range transport. J. Geophys. Res., 113, D07207, doi:10.1029/2007JD008878, 2008b.
60. Lyamani,H., Olmo F. J., Alados-Arboledas L.: Saharan dust outbreak over southeastern Spain as detected by sun photometer Atmos. Environ. 39, 38, 7276-7284, 2005. (Pubitemid 41539449)
61. Mahowald, N., Kohfeld, K., Hansson, M., Balkanski, Y., Harrison, S. P., Printice, I. C., Schulz, M., and Rodhe, H.: Dust sources and deposition during the last glacial maximum and current climate: a comparison of model results with paleodata from ice cores and marine sediments, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15895-15916, 1999.
62. Mahowald, N., Yoshioka, M., Collins, W., Conley, A., Fillmore, D., and Coleman, D.: Climate response and radiative forcing from mineral aerosols during the glacial maximum, pre- industrial, current and doubled-carbon dioxide climates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L20705, doi:10.1029/2006GL026126, 2006. (Pubitemid 44941725)
63. Maring, H., Savoie, D. L., Izaguirre, M. A., and Custals, L.: Vertical distributions of dust and sea salt over Puerto Rico during PRIDE measured from a light aircraft, J. Geophys., 108, 8587, doi:10.1029/2002JD002544, 2003.
64. Marsham, J. H., Parker, D. J., Grams, C. M., Johnson, B. T., Grey, W. M. F., and Ross, A. N.: Observations of mesoscale and boundary-layer scale circulations affecting dust transport and uplift over the Sahara, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6979-6993, doi:10.5194/acp-8-6979-2008, 2008.
65. Marticorena, B., Bergametti, G., Aumont, B., Callot, Y., N'Doum'e, C., and Legrand, M.: Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 2. Simulation of Saharan dust sources, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 4387-4404, doi:10.1029/96JD02964, 1997.
66. Marticorena, B. and Bergametti, G.: Modeling the atmospheric dust cycle: 1. Design of a soil-derived dust emission scheme, J. Geophys. Res., 100(D8), 16415-16430, doi:10.1029/95JD00690, 1995.
67. Martin, J. H.: Testing the iron hypothesis in ecosystem of the equatorial Pacific Ocean, Nature, 371, 123-129, 1994. (Pubitemid 24285060)
68. McKendry, I. G., Macdonald, A. M., Leaitch, W. R., van Donkelaar, A., Zhang, Q., Duck, T., and Martin, R. V.: Trans-Pacific dust events observed at Whistler, British Columbia during INTEX-B, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 6297-6307, doi:10.5194/acp-8-6297-2008, 2008.
69. McNaughton, C. S., Clarke, A. D., Kapustin, V., Shinozuka, Y., Howell, S. G., Anderson, B. E., Winstead, E., Dibb, J., Scheuer, E., Cohen, R. C., Wooldridge, P., Perring, A., Huey, L. G., Kim, S., Jimenez, J. L., Dunlea, E. J., DeCarlo, P. F., Wennberg, P. O., Crounse, J. D., Weinheimer, A. J., and Flocke, F.: Observations of heterogeneous reactions between Asian pollution and mineral dust over the Eastern North Pacific during INTEX-B, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8283-8308, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8283-2009, 2009.
70. Mller, D., Heinold, B., Tesche, M., Tegen, I., Althausen, D., Ar-boledas, L. A., Amiridis, V., Amodeo, A., Ansmann, A., Balis, D., Comeron, A., D'Amico, G., Gerasopoulos, E., Guerrero-Rascado, J. L., Freudenthaler, V., Giannakaki, E., Heese, B., Iarlori, M., Knippertz, P., Mamouri, R. E., Mona, L., Papayan-nis, A., Pappalardo, G., Perrone, R.-M., Pisani, G., Rizi, V., Sicard, M., Spinelli, N., Tafuro, A., and Wiegner, M.: EAR-LINET observations of the 14-22-May long-range dust transport event during SAMUM 2006: validation of results from dust transport modeling, Tellus, 61(1), 325-339, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2008.00400.x, 2008.
71. Osborne, S. R., Johnson, B. T., Haywood, J. M., Baran, A. J., Harrison, M. A. J., and McConnell, C. L.: Physical and optical properties of mineral dust aerosol during the Dust and Biomass-burning Experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C03, doi:10.1029/2007JD009551, 2008.
72. Pandithurai, G., Dipu, S., Dani, K. K., Tiwari, S., Bisht, D. S., De-vara, P. C. S., and Pinker, R. T.: Aerosol radiative forcing during dust events over New Delhi, India, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D13209, doi:10.1029/2008JD009804, 2008.
73. Patterson, E. M., Gillette, D., and Stockton, B. H.: Complex index of refraction between 300 and 700 nm for Saharan aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 3153-3160, 1997.
74. Pfister, L., Selkirk, H. B., Starr, D. O., Rosenlof, K., and Newman, P. A.: A meteorological overview of the TC4 mission, J. Geo-phys. Res., 115, D00J12, doi:10.1029/2009JD013316, 2010.
75. Prospero, J.: The atmospheric transport of particles to the ocean, in Particle Flux in the Ocean, 18-152, John Wiley, New York, 1996.
76. Prospero, J.: Long-term measurements of the transport of African mineral dust to the southeastern United States: Implications for regional air quality, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 15917-15927, 1999.
77. Prospero, J. M. and Carlson, T. N.: Vertical and areal distribution of Saharan dust over the western equatorial North Atlantic ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 77, 5255-5265, 1972.
78. Prospero, J. and Carlson, T.: Saharan air outbreaks over the tropical North Atlantic, Pure Appl. Geophys., 119, 677-691, 1981.
79. Prupacher, H.R. and Klett, J. D.: Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 9780792344094, 976 pp., 1996.
80. Rajot, J. L., Formenti, P., Alfaro, S., Desboeufs, K, Chevaillier, S., Chatenet, B., Gaudichet, A., Journet, E., Marticorena, B., Triquet, S., Maman, A., Mouget, N., and Zakou, A.: AMMA dust experiment: An overview of measurements performed during the dry season special observation period (SOP0) at the Ban-izoumbou (Niger) supersite, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C14, doi:10.1029/2008JD009906, 2008.
81. Ramanathan, V., Crutzen, P. J., Lelieveld, J., Mitra, A. P., Althausen, D., Anderson, J., Andreae, M. O., Cantrell, W., Cass, G. R., Chung, C. E., Clarke, A. D., Coakley, J. A., Collins, W. D., Conant, W. C., Dulac, F., Heintzenberg, J., Heymsfield, A. J., Holben, B., Howell, S., Hudson, J., Jayaraman, A., Kiehl, J. T., Krishnamurti, T. N., Lubin, D., McFarquhar, G., Novakov, T., Ogren, J. A., Podgorny, I. A., Prather, K., Priestley, K., Prospero, J. M., Quinn, P. K., Rajeev, K., Rasch, P., and Rupert, S., Sadourny, R., Satheesh, S. K., Shaw, G. E., Sheridan, P., and Valero, F. P. J.: The Indian Ocean Experiment: An integrated assessment of the climate forcing and effects of the great Indo-Asian haze, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D22), 28371-28399, doi:10.1029/2001JD900133, 2001.
82. Rasch, P. J., Collins, W. D., and Eaton, B. E.: Understanding the Indian Ocean Experiment (INDOX) aerosol distributions with an aerosol assimilation, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 7337-7355, 2001.
83. Rea, D. K., Leinen, M., and Janecek, T. R.: Geologic approach to the long-term history of atmospheric circulation, Science, 227, 721-725, 1985. (Pubitemid 16265470)
84. Reid, J. S., Westphal, D. L., Livingston, J. M., Savoie, D. L., Mar-ing, H. B., Jonsson, H. H., Eleuterio, D. P., Kinney, J. E., and Reid, E. A.: Dust vertical distribution in the Caribbean during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(7), 1151, doi:10.1029/2001GL014092, 2002.
85. Reid, J. S., Kinney, J. E., Westphal, D. L., Holben, B. N., Welton, E. J., Tsay, S., Eleuterio, D. P., Campbell, J. R., Christopher, S. A., Colarco, P. R., Jonsson, H. H., Livingston, J. M., Maring, H. B., Meier, M. L., Pilewskie, P., Prospero, J. M., Reid, E. A., Remer, L. A., Russell, P. B., Savoie, D. L., Smirnov, A., and Tanré, D.: Analysis of measurements of Saharan dust by airborne and ground-based remote sensing methods during the Puerto Rico Dust Experiment (PRIDE), J. Geophys. Res., 108(D19), 8586, doi:10.1029/2002JD002493, 2003.
86. Sassen, K.: Lidar backscatter depolarization technique for cloud and aerosol research, in Light Scattering by Nonspherical Particles: Theory, Measurements, and Geophysical Applications, edited by: Mishchenko, M. L., Hovenier, J. W., and Travis, L. D.,393-416, Academic Press, San Diego, 2000.
87. Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Guelle, W., and Dulac, F.: Role of aerosol size distribution and Source location in a three dimensional simulation of a saharan dust episode tested against satellite derived optical thickness, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 10579-10592, 1998. (Pubitemid 128718576)
88. Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change, John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
89. Seinfeld, J. H., Carmichael, G. R., Arimoto, R., Conant, W. C., Brechtel, F. J., Bates, T. S., Cahill, T. A., Clarke, A. D., Doherty, S. J., Flatau, P. J., Huebert, B. J., Kim, J., Markowicz, K. M., Quinn, P. K., Russell, L. M., Russell, P. B., Shimizu, A., Shinozuka, Y., Song, C. H., Tang Y., Uno, I., Vogelmann, A. M., Weber, R. J., Woo, J., and Zhang, Y.: ACE-ASIA - Regional climatic and atmospheric chemical effects of Asian dust and pollution, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 85(3), 367-380, doi:10.1175/BAMS-85-3-367, 2004.
90. Shao, Y. and Dong, C. H.: A Review on East Asian Dust Storm Climate, Modelling and Mornitoring, Global Planet. Changes, 52, 1-22, 2006. (Pubitemid 43868058)
91. Shao, Y. and Lu, I.: A simple expression for wind erosion threshold friction velocity, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 22437-22443, 2000.
92. Shao, Y. and Raupach, M.: Effect of saltation bombardment by wind, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 12719-12726, 1993.
93. Shaw, G. E.: Transport of Asian Desert Aerosol to the Hawaiian Islands, J. Appl. Meteorol., 19, 1254-1259, 1980.
94. Shimizu, A., Sugimoto, N., Matsui, I., Arao, K., Uno, I., Mu-rayama, T., Kagawa, N., Aoki, K., Uchiyama, A., and Yamazaki, A.: Continuous observations of Asian dust and other aerosols by polarization lidars in China and Japan during ACE-Asia, J. Geo-phys. Res., 109, D19S17, doi:10.1029/2002JD003253, 2004. (Pubitemid 39660671)
95. Shinn, E. A., Smith, J. M., Prospero, G. W., Betzer, P., Hayes, M. L., Garrison, V., and Barber, R. T.: African dust and the demise of Caribbean coral reefs, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 3029-3032, 2000.
96. Smirnov, A., Holben, B. N, Savoie, D., Prospero, J. M., Kaufmann, Y. J., Tanré, D., Eck, T. F., and Slutsker, I. S.: Relationship between column aerosol optical thickness and in situ ground based dust concentrations over Barbados, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 1643-1646, 2000. (Pubitemid 32040506)
97. Sokolik, I. N. and Toon, O. B.: Direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic airborne mineral aerosols, Nature, 381, 681-683, doi:10.1038/381681a0, 1996.
98. Sokolik, I. N. and Toon, O. B.: Incorporation of mineralogical composition into models of the radiative properties of mineral aerosol from UV to IR wavelengths, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 9423-9444, 1999. (Pubitemid 29370745)
99. Stith, J. L., Ramanathan, V., Cooper, W. A., Roberts, G. C., DeMott, P. J., Carmichael, G., Hatch, C. D., Adhikary, B., Twohy, C. H., Rogers, D. C., Baumgardner, D., Prenni, A. J., Campos, T., Gao, R., Anderson, J., and Feng, Y.: An overview of aircraft observations from the Pacific Dust Experiment campaign, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D05207, doi:10.1029/2008JD010924, 2009.
100. Su, L. and Toon, O. B.: Numerical simulations of Asian dust storms using a coupled climate-aerosol microphysical model, J. Geo-phys. Res., 114, D14202, doi:10.1029/2008JD010956, 2009.
101. Tegen, I. and Fung, I.: Modeling of mineral dust in the atmosphere: Sources, transport, and Optical thickness, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 22897-22914, 1994.
102. Toon, O. B.: African dust in Florida clouds, Nature, 424, 623-624, 2003. (Pubitemid 36987970)
103. Toon, O. B., Turco, R., Westphal, D., Malone, R., and Liu, M.: A multidimensional model for aerosols: Description of computational analogs, J. Atmos. Sci., 45, 2123-2143, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045¡2123: AMMFAD¿2.0.CO;2, 1988.
104. Tratt, D. M., Frouin, R. J., and Westphal, D. L.: April 1998 Asian dust event: A southern California perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), 18371-18379, 2001.
105. Uno, I., Carmichael, G. R., Streets, D. G., Tang, Y., Yienger, J. J., Satake, S., Wang, Z., Woo, J., Guttikunda, S., Uematsu, M., Matsumoto, K., Tanimoto, H., Yoshioka, K., and Lida, T.: Regional chemical weather forecasting using CFORS: Analysis of surface observation at Japanese Island Station during the ACE-Asia experiment, J. Geophys. Res. 108(D23), 8668, doi:10.1029/ 2002JD002845, 2002.
106. Uno, I., Satake, S., Carmichael, G. R., Tang, Y., Wang, Z., Take-mura, T., Sugimoto, N., Shimizu, A., Murayama, T., Cahill, T. A., Cliff, S., Uematsu, M., Ohta, S., Quinn, P. K., and Bates, T. S.: Numerical study of Asian dust transport during the springtime of 2001 simulated with the Chemical Weather Forecasting System (CFORS) model, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D19S24, doi:10.1029/2003JD004222, 2004. (Pubitemid 39660678)
107. Uno, I., Harada, K., Satake, S., Hara, Y., and Wang, Z.: Meteorological Characteristics and dust distribution of the Tarim Basin simulated by the nesting RAMS/CFORS dust model, J. Meteo-rol. Soc. Jpn., 83A, 219-239, 2005. (Pubitemid 40990323)
108. Uno, I., Yumimoto, K., Shimizu, A., Hara, Y., Sugimoto, N., Wang, Z., Liu, Z., and Winker, D. M.: 3D structure of Asian dust transport revealed by CALIPSO lidar and a 4DVAR dust model, Geo-phys. Res. Lett., 35, L06803, doi:10.1029/2007GL032329, 2008. (Pubitemid 351738341)
109. Uno, I., Eguchi, K., Yumimoto, K., Takemura, T., Shimizu, A., Ue-matsu., M., Liu, Z., Wang, Z., Hara, Y., and Sugimoto, N.: Asian dust transported one full circuit around the globe, Nat. Geosci., 2, 557-560, doi:10.1038/ngeo583, 2009.
110. VanCuren, R. A.: Asian aerosols in North America: Extracting the chemical composition and mass concentration of the Asian continental aerosol plume from long-term aerosol records in the western United States, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D20), 4623, doi:10.1029/2003JD003459, 2003. (Pubitemid 350187733)
111. Westphal, D. L., Toon, O. B., and Carlson, T. N.: A two-dimensional numerical investigation of the dynamics and mi-crophysics of Saharan dust storms, J. Geophys. Res., 92, 3027-3049, 1987.
112. Winker, D. M., Pelon, J. R., and McCormick, M. P.: The CALIPSO mission: Spaceborne lidar for observation of aerosols and clouds, Proc. SPIE, 4893, 1-11, 2003.
113. Winker, D. M., Hunt, W. H., and McGill, M. J.: Initial performance assessment of CALIOP, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L19803, doi:10.1029/2007GL030135, 2007. (Pubitemid 350263036)
114. Winker, D. M., Pelon, J., Coakley, J. A., Ackerman, S. A., Charlson, R., Colarco, P. R., Flamant, P., Fu, Q., Hoff, R. M., Kittaka, C., Kubar,. T. L., Le Treut, H., MvCormick, M. P., Megie, G., Poople, L., Powell, K., Trepte, C., Vaughan, M. A., Wielicki, B. A.: The CALIPSO mission: a global 3D view of aerosols and clouds, Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 91(9), 1211-1229, 2010.
115. Wu, L.: Impact of Saharan air layer on hurricane peak intensity, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L09802, doi:10.1029/2007GL029564, 2007. (Pubitemid 47008169)
116. Young, S., Winker, D., Vaughan, M., Hu, Y., and Kuehn, R.: Extinction Retrieval Algorithms, CALIOP algorithm theoretical basis document PC-SCI-202 Part 4, available at: http://www.calipso. larc.nasa.gov/resources/pdfs/PC-SCI- 202 Part4 v1.0.pdf, 2008.
117. Zender, C. S., Huisheng, B., and Newman, D.: Mineral dust entrainment and Deposition (DEAD) model: Description and 1990s dust climatology, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D14),4416, doi:10.1029/2002JD002775, 2003a.