A review on synthesis and characterization of nanostructured conducting polymers (NSCP) and application in biosensors

Analytical Letters

Volumn 44, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1126-1171

  Deepshikha, ^a   Basu, T ^a  

^a AMITY UNIVERSITY   (India)

Author keywords

Biosensor; Conductivity; Nanostructured conducting polymer

Indexed keywords

EID: 79953726732     PISSN: 00032719     EISSN: 1532236X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2010.511734     Document Type: Review

References (166)

1. Armes, S. P., and B. Vincent. 1987. Dispersions of electrically conducting polypyrrole particles in aqueous media. J. Chem. Soc. 4: 288.
2. Arya, S. K., A. Chaubey, and B. D. Malhotra. 2006. Fundamentals and applications of biosensors. Proc. Indian Nat. Sci. Acad. 72(4): 249-266.
3. Bandodkar, A. J., C. Dhand, S. K. Arya, M. K. Pandey, and B. D. Malhotra. 2009. Nanostructured conducting polymer based reagentless capacitive immunosensor. Biomed. Microdevices 10.1007/s10544-009-9360-2.
4. Bangar, M. A., D. J. Shirale, W. Chen, N. V. Myung, and A. Mulchandani. 2009. Single conducting polymer nanowire chemiresistive label-free immunosensor for cancer biomarker. Anal. Chem. 81(6): 2168-2175.
5. Brahim, S., A. M. Wilson, D. Narinesingh, E. Iwuoha, and A. Guiseppi-Elie. 2003. Biosensors based on electrically conducting... Detection using conductive polymers. Microchim. Acta. 143: 123.
6. Carswell, A. D. W., E. A. O'Rear, and B. P. Grady. 2003. Adsorbed surfactants as templates for the synthesis of morphologically controlled polyaniline and polypyrrole nanostructures on flat surfaces: From spheres to wires to flat films. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125: 14793-14800.
7. Chandrasekhar, P. 1999. Conducting Polymers, Fundamentals and Applications: A Practical Approach. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 760.
8. Chen, W. C., T. C. Wen, and A. Gopalan. 2002. Negative capacitance for polyaniline-An analysis via electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Synth. Met. 128: 179-189.
9. Cheng, F. L., M. L. Zhang, and H. Wang. 2005. Fabrication of polypyrrole nanowire and nanotube arrays. Sensors. 5: 245-249.
10. Choi, S. J., and S. M. Park. 2000. Electrochemical growth of nanosized conducting polymer wires on gold using molecular templates. Adv. Mater. 12: 1547.
11. Cholli, A. L., M. Thiyagarajan, J. Kumar, and V. S. Parmar. 2005. Biocatalytic approaches for synthesis of conducting polyaniline nanoparticles. Pure Appl. Chem. 77: 339-344.
12. Coker, E., B. McKenzie, and M. J. McDermott. 2003. Templateless assembly of molecularly aligned conductive polymer nanowires: A new approach for oriented nanostructures. Chem. Eur. J. 9: 605.
13. Costantino, U., M. Casciola, G. Pani, D. J. Jones, and J. Roziere. 1997. Vibrational spectroscopic characterization of protonic conducting polyethyleneimine-α-and γ-zirconium phosphate nanocomposites. Solid State Ionics. 97: 261-267.
14. Curulli, A., F. Valentini, S. Orlanducci, M. L. Terranova, C. Paoletti, and G. Palleschi. 2004. Electrosynthesis of non conventional-polymer nanotubules: A new nanostructured material for analytical applications. Sens. Actuators B 100: 65-71.
15. Delvaux, M., J. Duchet, P. Y. Stavaux, R. Legras, and S. D. Champagne. 2000. Chemical and electrochemical synthesis of polyaniline micro and nano-tubules. Synth. Metals 113: 275-280.
16. Derfus, A. M., W. C. W. Chan, and S. N. Bhatia. 2004. Intracellular delivery of quantum dots for live cell labeling and organelle tracking. Adv. Mater. 16: 961-966.
17. Dhand, C., S. P. Singh, S. K. Arya, M. Datta, and B. D. Malhotra. 2007. Cholesterol biosensor based on electrophoretically deposited conducting polymer film derived from nano-structured polyaniline colloidal suspension. Anal. Chim. Acta 602: 244-251.
18. Ding, H., M. Wan, and Y. Wei. 2007. Controlling the diameter of polyaniline nanofibers by adjusting the oxidant redox potential. Adv. Mater. 19: 465-469.
19. Dong, B., N. Lu, M. Zelsmann, N. Kehagias, H. Fuchs, C. M. Torres, and L. Chi. 2006. Fabrication of high density. Large area conducting polymer nanostructures. Adv. Funct. Mater. 16: 1937.
20. Dong, H., S. Prasad, V. Nyame, and W. E. Jones, Jr. 2004. Sub-micrometer conducting polyaniline tubes prepared from polymer fiber templates. Chem. Mater. 16: 371-373.
21. Ekanayakel, E. M. I. M., D. M. G. Preethichandra, and K. Kaneto. 2007. Fabrication and characterization of nanostructured conducting polymer electrodes for glucose biosensor applications. Second International Conference on Industrial and Information Systems. ICIIS 2007. August 8-11, 2007. Sri Lanka.
22. Evans, S. A. G., K. Brakha, M. Billon, P. Mailley, and G. Denuault. 2005. Scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM): Localized glucose oxidase immobilization via the direct electrochemical microspotting of polypyrrole-biotin films. Electrochem. Comm. 7: 135-140.
23. Farokhzad, O. C., et al. 2004. Nanoparticle_aptamer bioconjugates: A new approach for targeting prostate cancer cells. Cancer Res. 64: 7668-7672.
24. Forzani, E. S., H. Zhang, L. A. Nagahara, I. Amlani, R. Tsui, and N. Tao. 2004. A conducting polymer nanojunction sensor for glucose detection. Nano Lett. 4: 1785-1788.
25. Gangopadhyay, R., A. De, and G. Ghosh. 2001. Polyaniline-poly(vinyl alcohol) conducting composite: Material with easy processability and novel application potential. Synth. Metals. 123: 21.
26. Gao, X., Y. Cui, R. M. Levenson, L. W. K. Chung, and S. Nie. 2004. In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. Nature Biotechnol. 22: 969-976.
27. Garjonyte, R., and A. Malinauskas. 2000. Amperometric glucose biosensors based on Prussian Blue-and polyaniline-glucose oxidase modified electrodes. Biosens. Bioelectron. 15: 445.
28. Guo, W. L. 2004. Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry. Harbin, P. R. China: Harbin Institute of Technology Press.
29. Han, M. G., S. K. Cho, S. G. Oh, and S. S. Im. 2002. Preparation and characterization of polyaniline nanoparticles synthesized from DBSA micellar solution. Synth. Metals 126: 53-60.
30. Hassan, P. A., S. N. Sawant, N. C. Bagkar, and J. V. Yakhmi. 2004. Polyaniline nanoparticles prepared in rodlike micelles. Langmuir 20: 4874-4880.
31. Hatchett, D. W., and M. Josowicz. 2008. Composites of intrinsically conducting polymers as sensing nanomaterials. Chem. Rev. 108: 746.
32. He, H. X., C. Z. Li, and N. J. Tao. 2001. Conductance of polymer nanowires fabricated by a combined electrodeposition and mechanical break junction method. Appl. Phys. Lett. 78: 811.
33. Hernandez, R. M., L. Richter, S. Semancik, S. Stranick, and T. E. Mallouk. 2004. Template fabrication of protein-functionalized gold-polypyrrole-gold segmented nanowires. Chem. Mater. 16: 3431-3438.
34. Hinds, K. A. et al. 2003. Highly efficient endosomal labeling of progenitor and stem cells with large magnetic particles allows magnetic resonance imaging of single cells. Blood 102: 867-872.
35. Ho, P. K. H., J. S. Kim, J. H. Burroughes, H. Becker, S. F. Y. Li, T. M. Brown, F. Cacialli, and R. H. Friend. 2000. Molecular-scale interface engineering for polymer light-emitting diodes. Nature 404: 481-483.
36. Hoehn, M. et al. 2002. Monitoring of implanted stem cell migration in vivo: A highly resolved in vivo magnetic resonance imaging investigation of experimental stroke in rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 16267-16272.
37. Hsieh, B. Z., H. Y. Chuang, L. Chao, Y. J. Li, Y. J. Huang, P. H. Tseng, T. H. Hsieh, and K. S. Ho. 2008. Formation mechanism of a nanotubular polyanilines prepared by an emulsion polymerization without organic solvent. Polymer 49: 4218-4225.
38. Huang, J. 2006. Syntheses and applications of conducting polymer polyaniline nanofibers. Pure Appl. Chem. 78: 15-27.
39. Huang, J., and R. B. Kaner. 2004. A general chemical route to polyaniline nanofibers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126: 851-855.
40. Huang, J., and R. B. Kaner. 2006. The intrinsic nanofibrillar morphology of polyaniline. Chem. Commun. 367-376.
41. Huang, J., S. Virji, B. H. Weiller, and R. B. Kaner. 2003. Polyaniline nanofibers: Facile synthesis and chemical sensors. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 125: 314-315.
42. Huang, J., S. Virji, B. H. Weiller, and R. B. Kaner. 2004. Nanostructured polyaniline sensors. Chem. Eur. J. 10: 1314.
43. Huang, L., Z. Wang, H. Wang, X. Cheng, A. Mitra, and Y. Yan. 2002. Polyaniline nanowires by electropolymerization from liquid crystalline phases. J. Mater. Chem. 12: 388-391.
44. Huang, X. J., and Y. K. Choi. 2007. Chemical sensors based on nanostructured materials. Sens. Actuators B 122: 659.
45. Im, Y., R. P. Vasquez, C. Lee, N. Myung, R. Pennere, and M. Yun. 2006. Single metal and conducting polymer nanowire sensors for chemical and DNA detections. J. Physics Conf. Ser. 38: 61-64.
46. Ingana, O., T. Johansson, and S. Ghosh. 2001. Phase engineering for enhanced electrochromism in conjugated polymers. Electrochimica Acta 46: 2031-2034.
47. Innis, P. C., I. D. Norris, L. A. P. Kanemaguire, and G. G. Wallace. 1998. Electrochemical formation of chiral polyaniline colloids codoped with (+)-or (-)-10-camphorsulfonic acid and polystyrene sulfonate. Macromol. 31: 6521-6528.
48. Ito, A., M. Shinkai, H. Honda, and T. Kobayashi. 2005. Medical application of functionalized magnetic nanoparticles. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 100: 1-11.
49. Jaiswal, J. K., H. Mattoussi, J. M. Mauro, and S. M. Simon. 2003. Long-term multiple color imaging of live cells using quantum dot bioconjugates. Nat. Biotechnol. 21: 47-51.
50. Jerome, C., S. D. Champagne, R. Legras, and R. Jerome. 2000. Electrochemical synthesis of conjugated polymer wires and nanotubules. Chem. Eur. J. 6(17): 3089-3093.
51. Jerome, C., and R. Jerome. 1998. Electrochemical synthesis of polypyrrole nanowires. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 37: 2488.
52. Jessensky, O., F. Müller, and U. Gösele. 1998. Self-organized formation of hexagonal pore arrays in anodic alumina. J. Appl. Phys. 72: 1173-1175.
53. Leite, F. L., L. G. Paterno, C. E. Borato, P. S. P. Herrmann, O. N. Oliveira, Jr., and L. H. C. Mattoso. 2005. Study on the adsorption of poly(o-ethoxyaniline) nanostructured films using atomic force microscopy. Polymer 46: 12503-12510.
54. Kameoka, J., and H. G. Craighead. 2003. Fabrication of oriented polymeric nanofibers on planar surfaces by electrospinning. Appl. Phys. Lett. 83: 371.
55. Kameoka, J., R. Orth, Y. Yang, D. Czaplewski, R. Mathers, G. W. Coates, and H. G. Craighead. 2003. A scanning tip electrospinning source for deposition of oriented nanofibers. Nanotechnology 14: 1124.
56. Karyakina, E. E., L. V. Neftyakova, and A. A. Karyakin. 1994. A novel potentiometric glucose biosensor based on polyaniline semiconductor film. Anal. Lett. 27: 2871.
57. Khademhosseini, A., J. Yeh, G. Eng, H. Kazi, J. Borenstein, J. Karp, O. Farokhzad, and R. Langer. 2005. Cell docking inside microwells within reversibly sealed microfluidic channels for fabricating multiphenotype cell arrays. Lab Chip. 5: 1380-1386.
58. Kim, B. J., S. G. Oh, M. G. Han, and S. S. Im. 2000. Preparation of polyaniline nanoparticles in micellar solutions as polymerization medium. Langmuir 16: 5841-5845.
59. Kim, B. J., S. G. Oh, M. G. Han, and S. S. Im. 2001. Synthesis and characterization of polyaniline nanoparticles in SDS micellar solutions. Synth. Metals 122: 297-304.
60. Kim, H., R. E. Cohen, P. T. Hammond, and D. T. Irvine. 2006. Live lymphocyte arrays for biosensing. Adv. Func. Mater. 16: 1313-1323.
61. Koopal, C. G. J., B. D. E. Ruiter, and R. J. M. Nolte. 1991. Amperometric biosensor based on direct communication between glucose oxidase and a conducting polymer inside the pores of a filtration membrane. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1691.
62. Kresge, C. T., W. J. L. Roth, J. C. Vartuli, and J. S. Beck. 1992. Ordered mesoporous molecular sieves synthesized by a liquid-crystal template mechanism. Nature 359: 710.
63. Kros, A., R. J. M. Nolte, and N. A. J. M. Sommerdijk. 2002. Conducting polymers with confined dimensions: Track-ETCH membranes for amperometric biosensor applications. Adv. Mater. 14: 1779-1782.
64. Kshama, B., J. C. Hulteen, and A. Martin. 1997. Nanotubule-Based Molecular-Filtration Membranes C. R. Science 278: 655-658.
65. Kumar, S. S., J. Mathiyarasu, K. L. N. Phani, and V. Yegnaraman. 2006. Simultaneous determination of dopamine and ascorbic acid on poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) modified glassy carbon electrode. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 10: 905-913.
66. Lakard, B., G. Herlem, M. Labachelerie, W. Daniau, G. Martin, J.-C. Jeannot, L. Robert et al. 2004. Miniaturized pH biosensors based on electrochemically modified electrodes with biocompatible polymers. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 19: 595-606.
67. Langer, J. J., M. Filipiak, J. Kecinska, J. Jasnowska, J. Włodarczak, and B. Buładowski, B. 2004. Polyaniline biosensor for choline determination. Surf. Sci. 573: 140-145.
68. Langer, J. J., G. Framski, and R. Joachimiak. 2001. Polyaniline nanowires and nano-networks. Synth. Metals. 121: 1281-1282.
69. Lee, J. Y., and S. M. Park. 2000. Elecrochemistry of conductive polymers. XXIV polypyrrole films grown at electrodes modified with _-cyclodextrinmolecular templates. J. Electrochem. Soc. 147: 4189.
70. Lee, K. P., A. M. Showkat, A. I. Gopalan, S. H. Kim, and S. H. Choi. 2005. Synthesis of poly (diphenylamine) nanotubes in the channels of MCM-41 through self-assembly. Macromolecules. 38: 364-371.
71. Li, C., T. Hatano, M. Takeuchi, and S. Shinkai. 2004. Polyaniline superstructures created by a templating effect of Organogels. Chem. Commun. 2350-2351.
72. Li, G., H. Peng, Y. Wang, Y. Qin, Z. Cui, and Z. Zhang. 2004. Synthesis of polyaniline nanobelts. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 25: 1611-1614.
73. Li, G., Z. Wang, G. Xie, H. Peng, and Z. Zhang. 2006. Synthesis of interconnected polyaniline nanofibers in catanionic micelles. J. Dispers. Sci. Techn. 27: 991-995.
74. Li, X., S. Tian, Y. Ping, D. H. Kim, and W. Knoll. 2005. One step route to fabricate highly porous polyaniline nanofibre films by using PS-b-PVP diblock copolymers as templates. Langmuir 21: 9393.
75. Liang, L., J. Liu, C. F. J. Windisch, G. J. Exarhos, and Y. L. Angew. 2002. Direct assembly of large arrays of oriented conducting polymer nanowires. Chem. Int. Ed. 41: 3665-3668.
76. Liao, J. C. et al. 2006. Use of electrochemical DNA biosensors for rapid molecular identification of uropathogens in clinical urine specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 561-570.
77. Lim, J. H., and C. A. Mirkin. 2002. Electrostatically driven dip-pen nanolithography of conducting. Polymers. Adv. Mater. 14: 1474.
78. Liu, H., J. Kameoka, D. A. Czaplewski, and H. G. Craighead. 2004. Polymeric nanowire chemical sensor. Nano Lett. 4: 671.
79. Liu, J., Y. Lin, L. Liang, J. A. Voigt, D. L. Huber, Z. R. Tian, E. Coker, B. Mckenzie, and M. J. Mcdermott. 2003. Templateless assembly of molecularly aligned conductive polymer nanowires. A new approach for oriented nanostructures. Chem. Eur. J. 9: 604.
80. Liu, J., Y. H. Lin, L. Liang, J. A. Voigt, D. L. Huber, Z. R. Tian, J. Luo, et al. 1999. Electrochemical-assembly approach to nano-ordered conducting polymer films. Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 337: 157.
81. Lu, D., T. Katou, M. Uchida, J. N. Kondo, and K. Domen. 2005. In situ TEM observation of crystallization of amorphous ordered mesoporous Nb-Ta and Mg-Ta mixed oxides. Chem. Mater. 417: 632.
82. Lu, Y., A. Pich, and H. J. P. Adler. 2004. Synthesis and characterization of polypyrrole dispersions prepared with different dopants. Macromol. Symp. 210: 411.
83. Luo, X., A. J. Killard, A. Morrin, and M. R. Smyth. 2007. Electrochemical preparation of distinct polyaniline nanostructures by surface charge control of polystyrene nanoparticle templates. Chem. Commun. 3207-3209.
84. Luo, X., A. Morrin, A. J. Killard, and M. R. Smyth. 2006. Application of nanoparticles in electrochemical sensors and biosensors. Electroanalysis 18: 319-326.
85. Ma, J., C. Wang, and C. H. Liang. 2007. Colloidal and electrophoretic behavior of polymer particulates in suspension. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 27: 886.
86. Ma, Y. F., J. M. Zhang, G. J. Zhang, and H. X. He. 2004. Polyaniline nanowires fabricated on si surfaces with DNA templates. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 22: 7097.
87. Malinauskas, A., J. Malinauskiene, and A. Ramanavicius. 2005. Conducting polymer-based nanostructurized materials: Electrochemical aspects. Nanotechnology 16: R51-R62.
88. Mandal, T. K., and B. M. Mandal. 1995. Ethylhydroxyethylcellulose stabilized polypyrrole dispersions. Polymer 36: 1911.
89. Marcilla, R., C. Pozo-Gonzalo, J. Rodr'i{dotless}guez, J. A. Alduncin, J. A. Pomposo, and D. Mecerreyes. 2006. Use of polymeric ionic liquids as stabilizers in the synthesis of polypyrrole organic dispersions. Synth. Metals 156: 1133-1138.
90. Martin, C. R. 1994. Nanomaterials: A membrane-based synthetic approach. Science. 266: 1961-1966.
91. Martin, C. R. 1996. Membrane-based synthesis of nanomaterials, special issue on nanostructured materials. Chem. Mater. 8: 1739-1746.
92. Martin, C. R., and P. Kohli. 2003. The emerging field of nanotube biotechnology. Nat. Rev. Drug Disc. 2: 29-36.
93. Maynor, B. W., S. F. Filocamo, M. W. Grinstaff, and J. Liu. 2002. Direct-writing of polymer nanostructures: Poly(thiophene) nanowires on semiconducting and insulating surfaces. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 124: 522.
94. Mazur, M., M. Tagowska, B. Pałys, and K. Jackowska. 2003. Template synthesis of polyaniline and poly (2-methoxyaniline) nanotubes: Comparison of the formation mechanisms. Electrochem. Comm. 5: 403-407.
95. Miao, Y., M. Qi, S. Zhan, N. He, J. Wang, and C. Yuan. 1999. Construction of a glucose biosensor immobilized with glucose oxidase in the film of polypyrrole nanotubules. Anal. Lett. 32(7): 1287-1299.
96. Miller, S. A., V. Y. Young, and C. R. Martin. 2001. Electroosmotic flow in template-prepared carbon nanotube membranes. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 123: 12335-12342.
97. Moel, K. D., G. O. R. A. V. Ekenstein, H. Nijland, E. Polushkin, and G. T. Brinke. 2001. Polymeric nanofibers prepared from self-organized supramolecules. Chem. Mater. 13: 4580-4583.
98. Morgan, H., and P. J. S. Foot. 2001. The effects of composition and processing variables on the properties of thermoplasticpolyaniline blends and composites. J. Mater. Sci. 36: 5369-5377.
99. Morrin, A., O. Ngamna, A. J. Killard, S. E. Moulton, M. R. Smyth, and G. G. Wallace. 2005. An amperometric enzyme biosensor fabricated from polyaniline nanoparticles. Electroanalysis 17: 423-430.
100. Moulton, S. E., P. C. Innis, L. A. P. Kane-Maguire, O. Ngamna, and G. G. Wallace. 2004. Polymerisation and characterisation of conducting polyaniline nanoparticle dispersions. Curr. Appl. Phys. 4: 402-406.
101. Mulchandani, A., W. Chen, N. V. Myung, and M. V. Yates. 2005. Conducting-polymer Nanowire Immunosensor Arrays for Microbial Pathogens. EPA Grant Number: GR832375.
102. Nakao, H., H. Hayashi, T. Yoshino, S. Sugiyama, K. Otobe, and T. Ohtani. 2002. Development of novel polymer-coated substrates for straightening and fixing DNA. Nano Lett. 2: 475.
103. Nandi, M. A., R. B. Gangopadhyay, and A. Bhaumik. 2007. Mesoporous polyaniline having high conductivity at room temperature. Microporous Mesoporous Mater. 109: 239-247.
104. Nickels, P., W. U. Dittmer, S. Beyer, J. P. Kotthaus, and F. Simmel. 2004. Polyaniline nanowire synthesis templated by DNA. Nanotechnology 15: 1524.
105. Nicolle, L. 2001. Epidemiology of urinary tract infection. Infect. Med. 18: 153-162.
106. Okuno, H., T. Kitano, H. Yakabe, M. Kishimoto, B. A. Deore, H. Silgi, and T. Nagaoka. 2002. Characterization of overoxidised polypyrrole colloids imprinted with L-lactate and their application to enantioseparation of amino acids. Anal. Chem. 74: 4184-4190.
107. Park, J., J. Kim, and Y. Son. 2006. Conducting polymer micro-tubules hosting electroactive species without guest modification. Synth. Metals. 156: 714-720.
108. Parthasarathy, R. V., and C. R. Martin. 1994. Template-synthesis of polyaniline microtubules. Chem. Mater. 6: 1627-1632.
109. Pra, L. D., and S. D. Champagne. 2005. Investigation of the electronic structure and spectroelectrochemical properties of conductive polymer nanotube arrays. Polymer 46: 1583.
110. Qiu, H., and M. Wa. 2001. Conducting polyaniline nanotubes by template-free polymerization. Macromolecules 34: 675-677.
111. Qiu, H., and M. Wan. 2001. Synthesis, characterization and electrical properties of nanostructured polyaniline doped with novel sulphonic acids(4-{n-[4-(4-nitrophenylazo) phenyloxy]alkyl} aminobenzene sulphonic acid. J. Polym. Sci. A 39: 3485.
112. Rajesh, B., K. R. Thampi, J. M. Bonard, A. J. McEvoy, N. Xanthopoulos, H. J. Mathieu, and B. Viswanathan. 2004. Pt particles supported on conducting polymeric nanocones as electro-catalysts for methanol oxidation. J. Power Sources. 133: 155-161.
113. Ramanavičius, A., A. Kausaitė, and A. Ramanavičien. 2005. Polypyrrole-coated glucose oxidase nanoparticles for biosensor design. Sens. Actuators. B 111-112: 532-539.
114. Ramanavičius, A., A. Ramanavicienė, and A. Malinauskas. 2006. Electrochemical sensors based on conducting polymer-polypyrrole. Electrochim. Acta 51: 6025-6037.
115. Rao, C. N. R., A. Müller, and A. K. Cheetham. 2004. The Chemistry of Nanomaterials Synthesis, Properties and Applications. Weinheim: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.
116. Reneker, D. H., A. L. Yarin, H. Fong, and S. Koombhongse. 2000. Bending instability of electrically charged liquid jets of polymer solutions in electrospinning. J. Appl. Phys. 87: 4531.
117. Reung-U-Rai, A., A. Prom-Jun, W. Prissanaroon-Ouajai, and S. Ouajai. 2008. Synthesis of highly conductive polypyrrole nanoparticles via microemulsion polymerization. J. Met. Mat. Min. 18: 27-31.
118. Sawall, D. D., R. M. Villahermosa, R. A. Lipeles, and A. R. Hopkins. 2004. Interfacial polymerization of polyaniline nanofibers grafted to Au. Surfaces Mater. 16: 1606-1608.
119. Selvan, S. T., A. Mani, K. Athinarayanasamy, K. L. N. Phani, and S. Pitchumani. 1995. Synthesis of crystalline polyaniline. Mater. Res. Bull. 30: 699-705.
120. Shi, B., J. Ren, A. Wang, X. Liu, and Y. Wang. 2009. Synthesis and characterization of wormhole-like mesostructured polyaniline. J. Mater. Sci. 44: 6498-6504.
121. Shirakawa, H., E. J. Louis, A. G. MacDiarmid, C. K. Chiang, and A. J. Heeger. 1977. Synthesis of electrically conducting organic polymers-Halogen derivatives of polyacetylene (CH)x. Chem. Commu. 16: 578-580.
122. Skotheim, T. J., R. L. Elsenbaumer, and J. R. Reynolds. 1998. Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 2nd Ed. New York: Marcel Dekker.
123. Smits, J., B. Wincheski, M. Namkung, R. Crooks, and R. Louie. 2003. As-synthesized HiPco SWNT (from Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc.). Response of Fe powder, purified and as-produced HiPco single-walled carbon nanotubes to flash exposure. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 358: 384-389.
124. Stejskal, J., P. Kratochvil, S. P. Armes, S. F. Lascelles, A. Riede, M. Helmstedt, J. Prokes, and I. Krivka. 1996. Polyaniline Dispersions. 6. Stabilization by Colloidal Silica Particles. Macromolecules 29: 6814-6819.
125. Stejskal, J., M. Spirkova, A. Riede, M. Helmstedt, P. Mokreva, and J. Prokes. 1999. Polyaniline dispersions 8. The control of particle morphology. Polymer 40: 2487.
126. Taitt, C. R., G. P. Anderson, B. M. Lingerfelt, M. J. Feldstein, and F. S. Ligler. 2002. Nine-analyte detection using an array-based biosensor. Anal Chem. 74: 6114-6120.
127. Tang, Z. Y., S. Q. Liu, Z. X. Tang, S. J. Dong, and E. K. Wang. 2000. Synthesis of polyaniline nanoparticles. Electrochem. Commun. 2: 32.
128. Thanpitcha, S., A. Sirivat, A. M. Jamieson, and R. Rujiravanit. 2008. Synthesis of polyaniline nanofibrils using an in situ seeding technique. Synth. Metals 158: 695-703.
129. Tian, S., J. Liu, T. Zhu, and W. Knoll. 2004. Polyaniline/gold nanoparticle multilayer films: Assembly, properties, and biological applications. Chem. Mater. 16: 4103-4108.
130. Tolani, S. B., M. Craig, R. K. DeLong, K. Ghosh, and A. K. Wanekaya. 2009. Towards biosensors based on conducting polymer nanowires. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 393: 1225-1231.
131. Tran, H. D., and R. B. Kaner. 2006. A general synthetic route to nanofibers of polyaniline derivatives. Chem. Commun. 3915-3917.
132. Trojanowicz, M. 2003. Application of conducting polymers in chemical analysis. Microchim. Acta. 143: 75.
133. Trojanowicz, M., W. Matuszewski, and M. Podsiadla. 1990. Enzyme entrapped polypyrrole modified electrode for determination of glucose. Biosens. Bioelectron. 5: 149.
134. Tsai, Y. C., S. C. Li, and S. W. Liao. 2006. Electrodeposition of polypyrrole multiwalled carbon nanotube-glucose oxidase nanobiocomposite film for the detection of glucose. Biosen. Bioelectron. 22: 495-500.
135. Valentini, C. F., S. Orlanducci, M. L. Terranova, and G. Palleschi. 2004. Pt based enzyme electrode probes assembled with Prussian Blue and conducting polymer nanostructures. Biosens. Bioelectron. 20: 1223-1232.
136. Valentini, C. F., S. Orlanducci, M. L. Terranova, C. Paoletti, and G. Palleschi. 2004. Electrosynthesis of non conventional-polymer nanotubules: A new nanostructured material for analytical applications. Sens. Actuators B 100: 65-71.
137. Vamvakaki, V., and N. A. Chaniotakis. 2007. Immobilization of enzyme into nanocavities for the improvement of biosensor stability. Biosen. Bioelectron. 22: 2650-2655.
138. Vu, Q. T., M. Pavlik, N. Hebestreit, J. Pfleger, U. Rammelt, and W. Plieth. 2005. Electrophoretic deposition of nanocomposites formed from polythiophene and metal oxides. Electrochim. Acta 51: 1117.
139. Wallace, G. G., S. E. Moulton, V. J. Misoska, L. A. P. Kane-Maguire, and P. C. Innis. 2002. Nanostructure based on inherently conducting polymers. Mat. Forum 26: 29-38.
140. Wanekaya, A. K., W. Chen, N. V. Myung, and A. Mulchandani. 2006. Nanowire-based electrochemical biosensors. Electroanalysis 18: 533-550.
141. Wang, C. W., Z. Wang, M. K. Li, and H. L. Li. 2001. Well-aligned polyaniline nano-fibril array membrane and its field emission property. Chem. Phys. Lett. 341: 431-434.
142. Wang, J. 2002. Real-time electrochemical monitoring: Toward green analytical chemistry. Acc. Chem. Res. 35: 811-816.
143. Wang, J., S. Chan, R. R. Carlson, Y. Luo, G. Ge, R. S. Ries, J. R. Heath, and H. R. Tseng. 2004. Electrochemically fabricated polyaniline nanoframework electrode junctions that function as resistive sensors. Nano Lett. 4: 1693-1697.
144. Wang, T., W. Zhonga, X. Ninga, Y. Wang, and W. Yang. 2009. Facile synthesis of polyaniline "sunflowers" with arrays of oriented nanorods. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 334: 108-112.
145. Wang, Z., M. Chen, and H. Li. 2002. Preparation and characterization of uniform polyaniline nano-fibrils using the anodic aluminium oxide template. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 328: 33-38.
146. Weast, R. C. 1982. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 62nd Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
147. Wei, Z., and M. Wan. 2003. Synthesis and characterization of self-doped poly(anilinecoaminonaphthalene sulfonic acid) nanotubes. J. Appl. Poly. Sci. 87: 1297-1301.
148. Wei, Z., M. Wan, T. Li, and M. Dai. 2003. Polyaniline nanotubes doped with sulfonated carbon nanotubes made via a self-assembly process. Adv. Mater. 15: 136.
149. Wei, Z., Z. Zhang, and M. Wan. 2002. Formation mechanism of self-assembled polyaniline micro/nanotubes. Langmuir 18: 917-921.
150. White, A., P. Handler, E. L. Smith, R. L. Hill, and I. R. Lehman. 1978. Principles of Biochemistry, 6th Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book.
151. Willner, I., R. B. Baron, and B. Willner. 2007. Integrated nanoparticle biomolecule systems for biosensing and bioelectronics. Biosen. Bioelectron. 22: 1841-1852.
152. Wilson, J. N., C. G. Bangcuyo, B. Erdogan, M. L. Myrick, and U. H. F. Bunz. 2003. Nanostructuring of poly(aryleneethynylene)s: Formation of nanotowers, nanowires, and nanotubules by templated self-assembly. Macromolecules 36: 1426-1428.
153. Wu, C. G., and T. Bein. 1994. Conducting polyaniline filaments in a mesoporous channel host. Science. 264: 1757-1759.
154. Wu, X., et al. 2003. Immunofluorescent labeling of cancer marker Her2 and other cellular targets with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat. Biotechnol. 21: 41-46.
155. Xing, S., C. Zhao, S. Jing, and Z. Wang. 2006. Preparation of polyaniline dispersions with different assembly structure. J. Mater. Sci. 41: 2761-2766.
156. Yang, Y., J. Liu, and M. Wan. 2002. Self-assembled conducting polypyrrole micro/nanotubes. Nanotechnology 13: 771.
157. Yeh, T. C., W. Zhang, S. T. Ildstad, and C. Ho. 1995. In vivo dynamic MRI tracking of rat T-cells labeled with superparamagnetic iron-oxide particles. Magn. Reson. Med. 33: 200-208.
158. Yoon, H., and J. Jang. 2009. Conducting-polymer nanomaterials for high-performance sensor applications: Issues and challenges. Adv. Funct. Mater. 19: 1567-1576.
159. Yu, L., J. Lee, K. W. Shin, C. E. Park, and R. Holze. 2003. Preparation of aqueous polyaniline dispersions by micellar-aided polymerization. J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 88: 1550-1555.
160. Zhang, L., and M. Wan. 2002. Synthesis and characterization of self-assembled polyaniline nanotubes doped with D-10-camphorsulfonic acid. Nanotechnology 13: 750-755.
161. Zhang, X., W. J. Goux, and S. K. Manohar. 2004. Synthesis of polyaniline nanofibers by "nanofiber seeding. " J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126: 4502-4503.
162. Zhang, X., and S. K. Manohar. 2004. Polyaniline nanofibers: Chemical synthesis using surfactants. Chem. Commun. 20: 2360.
163. Zhang, Z., and M. Wan. 2002. Composite films of nanostructured polyaniline with poly(vinyl alcohol). Synth. Metals 128: 83-89.
164. Zhang, Z., Z. Wei, and M. Wan. 2002. Nanostructures of polyaniline doped with inorganic acids. Macromolecules 35: 5937.
165. Zhao, J., R. W. Henkens, J. Stonehuerner, J. P. O'Daly, and A. L. J. Crumbliss. 1992. Direct electron transfer at horseradish peroxidase-colloidal golf modified electrodes. Electroanal. Chem. 327: 109.
166. Zhu, N., Z. Chang, P. He, and Y. Fang. 2006. Electrochemically fabricated polyaniline nanowire-modified electrode for voltammetric detection of DNA hybridization. Electrochim. Acta 51: 3758-3762.