Mycobacterial infections in zoo animals: Relevance, diagnosis and management

International Zoo Yearbook

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 183-202

  Lecu, A ^a   Ball, R ^b  

^a Parc Zoologique de Paris   (France)

^b Lowry Park Zoo   (United States)

Author keywords

Interferon ; Mycobacteria; Non tuberculosis mycobacteria; Serology; Tuberculosis; Zoo

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; CORYNEBACTERINEAE; MYCOBACTERIUM;

EID: 79953090443     PISSN: 00749664     EISSN: 17481090     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-1090.2011.00141.x     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Abebe, F., Holm-Hansen, C., Wiker, H. G. & Bjune, G. (2007): Progress of serodiagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Scandinavian Journal of Immunology 66: 176-191.
2. Ariga, H. & Harada, N. (2008): Evolution of IGRA researches. Kekkaku 83: 641-652.
3. Artois, M., Loukiadis, E., Garin-Bastuji, B., Thorel, M. F. & Hars, J. (2004): Infection des mammifères sauvages par Mycobacterium bovis, risques de transmission aux bovines domestiques. Bulletin Epidémiologique de l'AFFSA 13: 1-3.
4. Borsuk, S., Newcombe, J., Mendum, T. A., Dellagostin, O. A. & McFadden, J. (2009): Identification of proteins from tuberculin purified protein derivative (PPD) by LC-MS/MS. Tuberculosis 89: 423-430.
5. Buddle, B. & Young, L. (2000): Immunobiology of mycobacterial infections in marsupials. Developmental & Comparative Immunology 24: 517-529.
6. Bush, M., Montali, R. J., Murray, S., Holland, S. & Phillips, T. M. (1995): The diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of tuberculosis in captive Matschie's tree kangaroos (Dendrolagus matschiei). In Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians, the Wildlife Disease Association and the American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians, East Lansing, MI, August 13-17: 312-314 (abstract). Yulee, FL: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
7. Bushmitz, M., Lécu, A., Verreck, F., Preussing, E., Rensing, S. & Mätz-Rensing, K. (2008): Guidelines for the prevention and control of tuberculosis in nonhuman primates. recommendations of the European Primate Veterinary Association (EPV) Working Group on Tuberculosis. Journal of Medical Primatology 38: 59-69.
8. Calle, P. P., Thoen, C. O. & Roskop, M. I. (1989): Tuberculin skin test responses, mycobacteriologic examinations of gastric lavage, and serum enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 20: 307-314.
9. Capuano, S. V., Croix, D. A., Pawar, S., Zinovik, A., Myers, A., Lin, P. L., Bissel, S., Fuhrman, C., Klein, E. & Flynn, J. L. (2003): Experimental Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection of Cynomolgus macaques closely resembles the various manifestations of human M. tuberculosis infection. Infection and Immunity 71: 5831-5844.
10. Chai, N., Deforges, L., Sougakoff, W., Truffot-Pernot, C., de Luze, A., Demeneix, B., Clément, M. & Bomsel, M. C. (2006): Mycobacterium szulgai infection in a captive population of African clawed frogs (Xenopus tropicalis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 37: 55-58.
11. Chambers, M. A. (2009): Review of the diagnosis and study of tuberculosis in non-bovine wildlife species using immunological methods. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 56: 215-227.
12. Chapel, H., Haeney, M., Misbah, S. & Snowden, N. (2006): Essentials of clinical immunology (5th edn). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
13. Ciftci, E., Ilgazli, A., Gulleroglu, B., Ara, I. & Akansel, G. (2005): Ultrasonographic measurement of the tuberculin skin test: comparison with manual reading. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice 13: 20-23.
14. Clifton-Hadley, R. S. & Wilesmith, J. W. (1991): Tuberculosis in deer: a review. Veterinary Record 129: 5-12.
15. Clifton-Hadley, R. S., Sauter-Louis, C. M., Lugton, I. W., Jackson, R., Durr, P. A. & Wilesmith, J. W. (2001): Mycobacterium bovis infections. In Infectious diseases of wild mammals: 340-361. Williams, E. S. & Barker, I. K. (Eds). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
16. Commission Decision (1999): Commission Decision of 15 July 1999 establishing the officially brucellosis free status of bovine herds of certain Member States or regions of Member States and repealing Decision 97/175/EC. Official Journal of the European Communities 16 July 1999: L181/34-L181/35. Available at
17. Commission Decision (2003): Commission Decision of 23 June 2003 establishing the official tuberculosis, brucellosis, and enzootic-bovine-leukosis-free status of certain Member States and regions of Member States as regards bovine herds 2003/467/EC. Official Journal of the European Communities 25 June 2003: L156/74-L156/78. Available at
18. Commission Decision (2009a): Commission Decision of 23 April 2009 amending Decision 2003/467/EC as regards the declaration that certain administrative regions of Italy are officially free of bovine tuberculosis, bovine brucellosis and enzootic-bovine-leukosis that certain administrative regions of Poland are officially free of enzootic-bovine-leukosis and that Poland and Slovenia are officially free of bovine tuberculosis. Official Journal of the European Union 24 April 2009: L104/51-L104/56. Available at
19. Commission Decision (2009b): Commission Decision of 15 October 2009 amending Decision 2003/467/EC as regards the declaration that Scotland is officially free of bovine tuberculosis. Official Journal of the European Union 16 October 2009: L271/34-L271/35: Available at
20. Cook, R. A. (1993): Review and update on USDA Cervid TB regulations and their effects on AAZPA accredited zoos. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1993: 205-207.
21. Cosivi, O., Grange, J. M., Daborn, C. J., Raviglione, M. C., Fujikura, T., Cousins, D., Robinson, R. A., Huchzermeyer, H. F., de Kantor, I. & Meslin, F. X. (1998): Zoonotic tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis in developing countries. Emerging Infectious Diseases 4: 59-70.
22. Council Directive (1964): Council Directive of 26 June 1964 on animal health problems affecting intra-Community trade in bovine animals and swine, 64/432/EEC (and amending acts). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Available at
23. Council Directive (1992): Council Directive 92/65/EEC of 13 July 1992 laying down animal health requirements governing trade in and imports into the Community of animals, semen, ova and embryos not subject to animal health requirements laid down in specific Community rules referred to in Annex A (I) to Directive 90/425/EEC. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Available at
24. Cousins, N. V. & Florisson, N. (2005): A review of tests available for use diagnosis of tuberculosis in non-bovine species. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties 24: 1039-1059.
25. Cranfield, M. R., Thoen, C. O. & Kempske, S. (1990): An outbreak of Mycobacterium bovis infection in hoofstock at the Baltimore Zoo. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1990: 128-137.
26. Dalovisio, J. R., Stetter, M. & Mikota-Wells, S. (1992): 'Rhinoceros' rhinorrhea: cause of an outbreak of infection due to airborne Mycobacterium bovis in zookeepers. Clinical Infectious Diseases 15: 598-600.
27. Defra. (2008): International trade: animal movement workshop (7th/8th of February 2008 at Twycross Zoo). London: Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. Available at
28. Doherty, T. M. & Rook, G. (2006): Progress and hindrances in tuberculosis vaccine development. Lancet 367: 947-949.
29. Duncan, A. E., Lyashchenko, K. P., Greenwald, R., Miller, M. & Ball, R. (2009): Application of elephant TB STAT-PAK assay and MAPIA (multi-antigen print immunoassay) for detection of tuberculosis and monitoring of treatment in black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40: 781-785.
30. EAZA (2009): Position statement on the animal health strategy for the European Union. Amsterdam: European Association of Zoos and Aquaria. Available at
31. Espie, I. W., Hlokwe, T. M., Gey Van Pittius, N. C., Lane, E., Tordiffe, A. S., Michel, A. L., Müller, A., Kotze, A. & Van Helden, P. D. (2009): Pulmonary infection due to Mycobacterium bovis in a black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor) in South Africa. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 45: 1187-1193.
32. Fitzgerald, S. D., Kaneene, J. B., Butler, K. L., Clarke, K. R., Fierke, J. S., Schmitt, S. M., Bruning-Fann, C. S., Mitchell, R. R., Berry, D. E. & Payeur, J. B. (2000): Comparison of post mortem techniques for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 12: 322-327.
33. Flynn, J. L., Capuanoa, S. V., Croixa, D., Pawara, S., Myersa, A., Zinovika, A. & Kleinb, E. (2003): Non-human primates: a model for tuberculosis research. Proceedings from the 4th world congress on tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 83 (1-3): 116-118.
34. Frieden, T. R., Sterling, T. R., Munsiff, S. S., Watt, C. J. & Dye, C. (2003): Tuberculosis. Lancet 362: 887-899.
35. Furley, C. W. (1997): Tuberculosis in elephants. Lancet 350: 224.
36. Gomis, D., Moisson, P., Lyashchenko, K. P., Moser, I., Bakker, D., Gutierrez, M. C., Boschiroli, M. L. & Gravet, A. (2008): Tuberculosis outbreak in Mulhouse Zoo, 1992-96 and 2005-06: diagnostic perspectives. In Proceedings of EAZWV Meeting, Leipzig, April 30-May 3 2008: 157-171. Erken, A. (Ed). Houten, the Netherlands: Kwadraat.
37. Good, M., Clegg, T. A., Murphy, F. & More, S. J. (2007): The comparative performance of the single intradermal comparative tuberculin test in Irish cattle, using tuberculin PPD combinations from different manufacturers. In UCD Dublin Biennial Report 2006-07: 79-86. More, S. J. & Collins, D. M. (Eds). Dublin: University College Dublin, School of Agriculture, Food Science and Veterinary Medicine.
38. Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, O., Esfandiari, J., Miller, M., Mikota, S., Olsen, J. H., Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Schmitt, D., Moller, T., Payeur, J. B., Harris, B., Sofranko, D., Waters, R. & Lyashchenko, K. P. (2009): Highly accurate antibody assays for early and rapid detection of tuberculosis in African and Asian elephants. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 16: 605-612.
39. Griffith, D. E. (2010): Nontuberculous mycobacterial lung disease. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 23: 185-190.
40. Grobler, D. G., Michel, A. L., De Klerk, L. M. & Bengis, R. G. (2002): The gamma-interferon test: its usefulness in a bovine tuberculosis survey in African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) in the Kruger National Park. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 69: 221-227.
41. Haagsma, J. & Eger, A. (1990): ELISA for diagnosis of tuberculosis and chemotherapy in zoo and wildlife animals. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1990: 107-110.
42. Hanekom, W. A., Lawn, S. D., Dheda, K. & Whitelaw, A. (2010): Tuberculosis research update. Tropical Medicine and International Health 15: 981-989.
43. Harrington, N. P., Surujballi, O. P., Waters, W. R. & Prescott, J. F. (2007): Development and evaluation of a real-time reverse transcription-PCR assay for quantification of gamma interferon mRNA to diagnose tuberculosis in multiple animal species. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 14: 1536-1571.
44. Jensen, P. A., Lambert, L. A., Lademarco, M. F. & Ridzon, R. (2005): Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care settings, 2005. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at
45. Johnson, C. T., Winkler, C. E., Boughton, E. & Penfold, J. W. (1993): Mycobacterium kansasii infection in a llama. Veterinary Record 133: 243-244.
46. Junge, R. E. (1995): Preventive medicine recommendations. In Infectious disease reviews, American Association of zoo veterinarians, Section 1, 1993: 165-172. Amand, W. (Ed.). Media, PA: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
47. Jurcynski, K., Lyashchenko, K. P., Gomis, D., Lécu, A., Torstchanoff, S., Klarenbeek, A. & Moser, I. (2007): Mycobacterium pinnipedii infection in South American sea lions (Otaria byronia) in Europe. In Erkrankungen der Zootiere: Verhandlungsbericht des 43. Internationalen Symposiums über die Erkankungen des Zoo und Wildtiere: 180 (abstract). Wibbelt, G., Bergholz, N., Seet, S. & Hofer, H. (Eds). Berlin: Institut für Wild- und Zootierforschung im Forschungsverbund.
48. Kaneene, J. B. & Pfeiffer, D. (2006): Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis. In Mycobacterium bovis infection in animals and humans (2nd edn). 34-48. Thoen, C. O., Steele, J. H. & Gilsdorf, M. J. (Eds). Des Moines, IA: Blackwell Publishing.
49. Katial, R. K. (2003): Immunodiagnostics for latent tuberculosis infection. In Tuberculosis: 231-239. Warrell, D. A. & Madkour, M. M. (Eds). Berlin: Springer-Verlag GmbH & Co.
50. Khan, H. I., Ravindran, R., Yee, J. A., Ziman, M., Lewinsohn, D. M., Gennaro, M. L., Flynn, J. L., Goulding, C. W., deRiemer, K., Lerche, N. W. & Luciw, P. A. (2008): Profiling antibodies to Mycobacterium tuberculosis by multiplex microbead suspension arrays for serodiagnosis of tuberculosis. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 15: 433-438.
51. Kiers, A., Klarenbeek, A., Mendelts, B., Van Soolingen, D. & Koëter, G. (2008): Transmission of Mycobacterium pinnipedii to humans in a zoo with marine mammals. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 12: 1469-1473.
52. Kiwanuka, J. P. (2005): Interpretation of tuberculin skin-test results in the diagnosis of tuberculosis in children. African Health Science 5: 152-156.
53. Lacasse, A., Gelfand, M. & Kiel, R. J. (2009): Mycobacterium marinum. Omaha, NE: Medscape. Available at
54. Lacasse, C., Terio, K., Kinsel, M. J., Farina, L. L., Travis, D. A., Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, K. P., Miller, M. & Gamble, K. C. (2007): Two cases of atypical mycobacteriosis caused by Mycobacterium szulgai associated with mortality in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 38: 101-107.
55. Lacave, G., Maillot, A., Alerte, V., Boschiroli, M. L. & Lécu, A. (2009): Atypical case of Mycobacterium pinnipedii in a Patagonian sea lion (Otaria flavescens) and tuberculosis cases history review in captive pinnipeds. In Proceedings of the 40th annual conference of the International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine, San Antonio, Texas, USA, 2-7 May 2009: 155-156. Harms, C. (Ed.). Oxford, MD: International Association for Aquatic Animal Medicine.
56. Lécu, A. & Riquelme, L. (2008): Evolutions des outils diagnostiques de la tuberculose des éspèces sauvages. Bulletin de l'Académie Vétérinaire de France 161: 151-158.
57. Lerche, N. W., Yee, J. L., Capuano, S. V. & Flynn, J. L. (2008): New approaches to tuberculosis surveillance of nonhuman primates. ILAR Journal 49: 170-178.
58. Lewerin, S. S., Olsson, S. L., Eld, K., Roken, B., Ghebremichael, S., Koivula, T., Kallenius, G. & Bolske, G. (2005): Outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a Swedish zoo. Veterinary Record 156: 171-175.
59. Liebana, E., Aranaz, A., Mateos, A., Villafranca, M., Gomez-Mampaso, E., Tercero, J.C, Alemany, J., Suarez, G., Domingo, M. & Dominguez, L. (1995): Simple and rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organism in bovine tissue sample by PCR. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 33: 33-36.
60. Lin, P. L., Pawar, S., Myers, A., Pegu, A., Fuhrman, C., Reinhart, T. A., Capuano, S. V., Klein, E. & Flynn, J. L. (2006): Early events in Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in cynomolgus macaques. Infection and Immunity 74: 3790-3803.
61. Lyashchenko, K. P., Singh, M., Colangeli, R. & Gennaro, M. L. (2000): A multi-antigen print immunoassay for the development of serological diagnosis of infectious diseases. Journal of Immunological Methods 242 (1-2): 91-100.
62. Lyashchenko, K. P., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., Olsen, J. H., Ball, R., Dumonceaux, G., Dunker, F., Buckley, C., Richard, M., Murray, S., Payeur, J. B., Andersen, P., Pollock, J. M., Mikota, S., Miller, M., Sofranko, D. & Waters, W. R. (2006): Tuberculosis in elephants: antibody responses to defined antigens of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, potential for early diagnosis, and monitoring of treatment. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13: 722-732.
63. Lyashchenko, K. P., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., Greenwald, D., Nacy, C. A., Gibson, S., Didier, P. J., Washington, M., Szczerba, P. & Motzel, S. (2007): PrimaTB STAT-PAK assay, a novel, rapid lateral-flow test for tuberculosis in nonhuman primates. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 14: 1158-1164.
64. Lyashchenko, K. P., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J., Chambers, M. A., Vicente, J., Gortazar, C., Santos, N., Correia-Neves, M., Buddle, B. M., Jackson, R., O'Brien, D. J., Schmitt, S., Palmer, M. V., Delahay, R. J. & Waters, W. R. (2008): Animal-side serologic assay for rapid detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in multiple species of free-ranging wildlife. Veterinary Microbiology 132 (3-4): 283-292.
65. Martin-Hernando, M. P., Höfle, U., Vicente, J., Ruiz-Fons, F., Vidal, D., Barral, M., Garrido, J. M., de la Fuente, J. & Gortazar, C. (2007): Lesions associated with Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in the European wild boar. Tuberculosis 87: 360-367.
66. Menzies, R., Vissandjee, B., Rocher, I. & Germain, Y. S. (1994): The booster effect in two-step tuberculin testing among young adults in Montreal. Annals of Internal Medicine 120: 190-198.
67. Michel, A. L. & Huchzermeyer, H. F. (1998): The zoonotic importance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis: transmission from human to monkey. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 69: 64-65.
68. Mikota, S. K., Larsen, R. S. & Montali, R. J. (2000): Tuberculosis in elephants in North America. Zoo Biology 19: 393-403.
69. Miller, M. (2008): Current diagnostic methods for tuberculosis in zoo animals. In Zoo and wildlife medicine: current therapy (6th edn). 10-19. Fowler, M. E. & Miller, R. E. (Eds). St Louis, MO: Saunders/Elsevier.
70. Miller, R. E. (1995): Quarantine procedures for AZA-accredited zoological parks. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1995: 145-152.
71. Montali, R. J., Mikota, S. K. & Cheng, L. I. (2001): Mycobacterium tuberculosis in zoo and wildlife species. Revue Scientifique et Technique Office International des Epizooties 20: 291-303.
72. Morar, D., Tijhaarb, E., Negrea, A., Hendriks, J., Van Haarlem, D., Godfroid, J., Michel, A. L. & Rutten, V. P. M. G. (2007): Cloning, sequencing and expression of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and the production of rhinoceros IFN-γ specific antibodies. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 115 (1-2): 146-154.
73. Moser, I., Prodinger, W. M., Hotzel, H., Greenwald, R., Lyashchenko, K. P., Bakker, D., Gomis, D., Seidler, T., Ellenberger, C., Hetzel, U., Wuennemann, K. & Moisson, P. (2008): Mycobacterium pinnipedii: transmission from South American sea lion (Otaria byronia) to Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus bactrianus) and Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus). Veterinary Microbiology 127 (3-4): 399-406.
74. Mostowy, S., Inwald, J., Gordon, S., Martin, C., Warren, R., Kremer, K., Cousins, D. & Behr, M. A. (2005): Revisiting the evolution of Mycobacterium bovis. Journal of Bacteriology 187: 6386-6395.
75. National Tuberculosis Working Group for Zoo and Wildlife Species (2001): Tuberculosis surveillance plan for non-domestic hoofstock. Available at (accessed 15 October 2010).
76. Ocepek, M., Pate, M., olnir-Dovè, M. & Poljak, M. (2005): Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from human to cattle. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43: 3555-3557.
77. OIE (2010a): Bovine tuberculosis. In Terrestrial animal health code 2010 Chapter 11.6: 11.6.1-11.6.10. Paris: The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Available at (accessed 15 October 2010).
78. OIE (2010b): Bovine tuberculosis in farmed cervidae. In Terrestrial animal health code 2010 Chapter 11.7: 11.7.1-11.7.9. Paris: The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE). Available at (accessed 15 October 2010).
79. Olsen, I., Barletta, R. G. & Thoen, C. O. (2010): Mycobacterium. In Pathogenesis of bacterial infections in animals (4th edn). 113-132. Gyles, C. L., Prescott, J. F., Songer, J. G. & Thoen, C. O. (Eds). Ames, IA: Wiley-Blackwell.
80. Palmer, M. V., Waters, W. R., Thacker, T. C., Greenwald, R., Esfandiari, J. & Lyashchenko, K. P. (2006): Effects of different tuberculin skin testing regimens on gamma interferon and antibody responses in cattle experimentally infected with Mycobacterium bovis. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology 13: 387-394.
81. Panarella, M. L. & Bimes, R. S. (2010): A naturally occurring outbreak of tuberculosis in a group of imported cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Journal of the American Association for Laboratory Animal Science 49: 221-225.
82. Pate, M., Svara, T., Gombac, M., Paller, T., Zolnir-Dovc, M., Emersic, I., Prodinger, W. M., Bartos, M., Zdovc, I., Krt, B., Pavlik, I., Cvetnic, Z., Pogacnik, M. & Ocepeck, M. (2006): Outbreak of tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium caprae in a zoological garden. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series B 53: 387-392.
83. Pattyn, S. R., Antoine-Portaels, F., Kageruka, P. & Gigase, P. (1970): Mycobacterium microti infection in a zoo-llama: Lama vicugna (Molina). Acta zoologica et pathologica Antverpiensia 51: 17-24.
84. Pavlas, M., Michalska, A. & Hunady, M. (1993): Diagnosis of avian tuberculosis-mycobacteriosis by rapid agglutination. Acta Veterinaria Brno 62: 63-69.
85. Petrini, B. (2006): Mycobacterium marinum: ubiquitous agent of waterborne granulomatous skin infections. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 25: 609-613.
86. Pottumarthy, S., Wells, V. C. & Morris, A. J. (2000): A comparison of seven tests for serological diagnosis of tuberculosis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38: 2227-2231.
87. Rangel-Frausto, M. S., Ponce-de-León-Rosales, S., Martinez-Abarora, C. & Hasløv, K. (2001): Tuberculosis and tuberculin quality: best intentions, misleading results. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 22: 481-484.
88. Rhodes, S. G., Terry, L. A., Hope, J., Hewinson, R. G. & Vordermeier, H. M. (2003): 1, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 and development of tuberculosis in cattle. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 10: 1129-1135.
89. Richardson, K. & Read, R. (1986): Tuberculosis osteomylitis caused by Mycobacterium intracellulare in the brush-tailed bettong. Journal of Wildlife Disease 22: 425-429.
90. Riquelme, L. A. Y. (2009): La tuberculose chez la faune sauvage captive et test de l'interferon gamma pour son diagnostic ante-mortem. Contribution à la mise en place d'un contrôle interne du test pour quelques espèces sauvages: no. 0604. Thèse Doctorat Veterinaire, École Nationale Vétérinaire d'Alfort, Maisons-Alfort, France.
91. Roh, Y. S., Park, H., Cho, A., Islam, M. R., Chekarova, I., Ejaz, S. E., Lim, C. W. & Kim, B. (2010): Granulomatous pneumonia in a captive freshwater crocodile (Crocodylus johnstoni) caused by Mycobacterium szulgai. Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 41: 550-554.
92. de la Rua-Domenech, R. (2006): Bovine tuberculosis in the European Union and other countries: current status, control programmes and constraints to eradication. Government Veterinary Journal 16: 19-45.
93. de la Rua-Domenech, R., Goodchild, A. T., Vordermeier, H. M., Hewinson, R. H., Christiansen, K. H. & Clifton-Hadley, R. S. (2006): Ante mortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in cattle: a review of the tuberculin tests, γ-interferon assay and other ancillary diagnostic techniques. Research in Veterinary Science 81: 190-210.
94. Rutten, V. P. M. G. (2007): Development of an interferon-gamma test and serology for tuberculosis in Asian elephants. In EU-Asia Link Project symposium: 'managing the health and reproduction of elephant populations in Asia', 8-10 October 2007, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand: 49-50. Bangkok: EU-Asia Link Project.
95. Schiller, I., Oesch, B., Vordemeier, H. M., Plamer, M. V., Harris, B. N., Orloski, K. A., Buddle, B. M., Thacker, T. C., Lyashchenlo, K. P. & Waters, W. R. (2010): Bovine tuberculosis: a review of current and emerging diagnostic techniques in view of their relevance for disease control and eradication. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 57: 205-220.
96. Schluger, N. W. (2005): The pathogenesis of tuberculosis: the first one hundred (and twenty-three) years. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology 32: 251-256.
97. Schmidt, V., Schneider, S., Schlömer, J., Krautwald-Junghanns, M. E. & Richter, E. (2008): Transmission of tuberculosis between men and pet birds: a case report. Avian Pathology 37: 589-592.
98. Sockett, D. C. (1993): Mycobacterium bovis infection in U.S. deer and elk farms. Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1993: 198-201.
99. Speer, B. L., Schumacher, J., Stetter, M. D., Garner, M. & Isaza, R. (1999): Diagnosis of avian tuberculosis. Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery 13: 207-211.
100. Steinmetz, H. W., Rutz, C., Hoop, R. K., Grest, P., Rohrer Bley, C. & Hatt, J. M. (2006): Possible human-avian transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a green-winged macaw (Ara chloroptera). Avian Diseases 50: 641-645.
101. Sternberg Lewerin, S., Eld, K., Bölske, G., Olsson, S. L., Röken, B., Ghebremichael, S., Koivula, T. & Källenius, G. (2005): Outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among captive Asian elephants in a Swedish zoo. Veterinary Record 156: 171-175.
102. Stetter, M. D., Mikota, S. K., Gutter, A. F., Monterroso, E. R., Dalovisio, J. R., Degraw, C. & Farley, T. (1995): Epizootic of Mycobacterium bovis in a zoological park. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 207: 1618-1621.
103. Talaat, A. M., Reimschuessel, R. & Trucksis, M. (1997): Identification of mycobacteria infecting fish to the species level using polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. Veterinary Microbiology 58: 229-237.
104. Terrell, S., Thomsen, B. V. & Harris, B. (2009): "TB or not TB ... That is the question": the pathology associated with Mycobacterium kansassi infection in two bonteboks (Damaliscus pygargus dorcas). In Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians and American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians joint conference, Tulsa, Oklahoma, October 25-30: 25-26. Baker, C. K. (Ed.). Yulee, FL: American Association of Zoo Veterinarians.
105. United Nations (2001): Road map towards the implementation of the United Nations Millennium Declaration: A/56/326. Report of the general secretary: 21-23. New York, NY: United Nations. Available at
106. United Nations (2005): 2005 world summit outcome: A/RES/60/1: 15-16. New York, NY: United Nations. Available at
107. United Nations (2010): Millennium development goals report 2010: 50-51. New York, NY: United Nations. Available at
108. USDA (2004): Bovine tuberculosis eradication. Uniform methods and rules, effective January 1, 2005. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Available at
109. Vervenne, R. A. W, Jones, S. L., Van Soolingen, D., Van Der Laan, T., Andersen, P., Heidt, P. J., Thomas, A. W. & Langermans, J. A. M. (2004): TB diagnosis in non-human primates: comparison of two interferon-g assays and the skin test for identification of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 100: 61-71.
110. Waters, W. R., Nonnecke, B. J., Olsen, S. C. & Palmer, M. V. (2007): Effects of preculture holding time and temperature on interferon gamma responses in whole blood cultures from Mycobacterium bovis infected cattle. Veterinary Microbiology 119: 277-282.
111. Wells, S. K., Sargent, E. L. & Andrews, M. E. (1990): Tuberculosis and tuberculin testing in orangutangs (Pongo pygmaeus). Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1990: 119-125.
112. Welsh, M. D., Cunningham, R. T., Corbett, D. M., Girvin, R. M., McNair, J., Skuce, R. A., Bryson, D. G. & Pollock, J. M. (2005): Influence of pathological progression on the balance between cellular and humoral immune responses in bovine tuberculosis. Immunology 114: 101-111.
113. Whitelaw, A. C. & Strum, W. A. (2009): Microbiological testing for Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In Tuberculosis: 169-178. Schaaf, H. S. & Zumla, A. (Eds). St Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier.
114. Wilson, G., Broughan, J., Chambers, M., Clifton-Hadley, R., Crawshaw, T., de la Fuente, J., Delahay, R., Gavier-Widen, D., Gortazar, C., Hewinson, G., Jackson, V., Matrin-Hernando, M. P., Neimanis, A., Salguero, F. J., Vicente, J., Ward, A. & McDonald, R. (2009): Technical report submitted to EFSA: scientific review on tuberculosis in wildlife in the EU. Parma, Italy: European Food Safety Authority. Available at
115. Wirth, T., Hildebrand, F., Allix-Beguec, C., Wolbeling, F., Kubica, T., Kremer, K., van Soolingen, D., Rusch-Gerdes, S., Locht, C., Brisse, S., Meyer, A., Supply, P. & Niemann, S. (2008): Origin, spread and demography of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. PLoS Pathogens 4: e1000160. Available at
116. ®: an in vitro cellular diagnostic test for bovine tuberculosis. Tuberculosis 81 (1-2): 147-155.
117. World Health Organization (2010): Tuberculosis Fact Sheet No. 104. Geneva: World Health Organization.