Has the use of molecular methods for the characterization of the human oral microbiome changed our understanding of the role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease?

Journal of Clinical Periodontology

Volumn 38, Issue SUPPL. 11, 2011, Pages 7-16

  Wade, William Geoffrey ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

16S rRNA; Microbiology; Molecular ecology; Periodontitis

Indexed keywords

RNA 16S;

BACTERIAL GENOME; BACTERIUM; CLASSIFICATION; CONFERENCE PAPER; GENETICS; HUMAN; METAGENOME; METHODOLOGY; MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION; MICROBIOLOGY; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MOUTH; PERIODONTAL DISEASE; PERIODONTITIS; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS;

BACTERIA; BACTERIOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES; GENOME, BACTERIAL; HUMANS; METAGENOME; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MOUTH; PERIODONTAL DISEASES; PERIODONTITIS; RNA, RIBOSOMAL, 16S; SEQUENCE ANALYSIS, RNA;

EID: 79951895603     PISSN: 03036979     EISSN: 1600051X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-051X.2010.01679.x     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (97)

1. Aas, J. A., Paster, B. J., Stokes, L. N., Olsen, I. & Dewhirst, F. E. (2005) Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43, 5721-5732. (Pubitemid 41612354)
2. Aranki, A., Syed, S. A., Kenney, E. B. & Freter, R. (1969) Isolation of anaerobic bacteria from human gingiva and mouse cecum by means of a simplified glove box procedure. Applied Microbiology 17, 568-576.
3. Arif, N., Do, T., Byun, R., Sheehy, E., Clark, D., Gilbert, S. & Beighton, D. (2008) Veillonella rogosae sp. nov., an anaerobic, Gram-negative coccus isolated from dental plaque. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 58, 581-584.
4. Baehni, P., Tsai, C. C., McArthur, W. P., Hammond, B. F. & Taichman, N. S. (1979) Interaction of inflammatory cells and oral microorganisms. VIII. Detection of leukotoxic activity of a plaque-derived gram-negative microorganism. Infection and Immunity 24, 233-243.
5. Baskaran, N., Kandpal, R. P., Bhargava, A. K., Glynn, M. W., Bale, A. & Weissman, S. M. (1996) Uniform amplification of a mixture of deoxyribonucleic acids with varying GC content. Genome Research 6, 633-638. (Pubitemid 26275867)
6. Bass, C. C. & Johns, F. M. (1915) Pyorrhoea dentalis and alveolaris. Journal of the American Dental Association 64, 553-558.
7. Brogan, J., Lally, E., Poulsen, K., Kilian, M. & Demuth, D. (1994) Regulation of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin expression: analysis of the promoter regions of leukotoxic and minimally leukotoxic strains. Infection and Immunity 62, 501-508. (Pubitemid 24033769)
8. Burton, J., Chilcott, C. & Tagg, J. (2005) The rationale and potential for the reduction of oral malodour using Streptococcus salivarius probiotics. Oral Diseases 11 (Suppl. 1), 29-31. (Pubitemid 44944427)
9. Christersson, L. A., Slots, J., Rosling, B. G. & Genco, R. J. (1985) Microbiological and clinical effects of surgical treatment of localized juvenile periodontitis. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 12, 465-476. (Pubitemid 15067628)
10. Colombo, A., Boches, S., Cotton, S., Goodson, J., Kent, R., Haffajee, A., Socransky, S., Hasturk, H., Van Dyke, T., Dewhirst, F. & Paster, B. (2009) Comparisons of subgingival microbial profiles of refractory periodontitis, severe periodontitis, and periodontal health using the human oral microbe identification microarray. Journal of Periodontology 80, 1421-1432.
11. Costello, E., Lauber, C., Hamady, M., Fierer, N., Gordon, J. & Knight, R. (2009) Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time. Science 326, 1694-1697.
12. D'Onofrio, A., Crawford, J. M., Stewart, E. J., Witt, K., Gavrish, E., Epstein, S., Clardy, J. & Lewis, K. (2010) Siderophores from neighboring organisms promote the growth of uncultured bacteria. Chemistry & Biology 17, 254-264.
13. Dahlen, G. & Leonhardt, A. (2006) A new checker-board panel for testing bacterial markers in periodontal disease. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 21, 6-11.
14. de Lillo, A., Ashley, F., Palmer, R., Munson, M., Kyriacou, L., Weightman, A. & Wade, W. (2006) Novel subgingival bacterial phylotypes detected using multiple universal polymerase chain reaction primer sets. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 21, 61-68.
15. de Lillo, A., Booth, V., Kyriacou, L., Weightman, A. & Wade, W. (2004) Culture-independent identification of periodontitis-associated Porphyromonas and Tannerella populations by targeted molecular analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42, 5523-5527. (Pubitemid 39664331)
16. DeLong, E. & Pace, N. (2001) Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea. Systematic Biology 50, 470-478.
17. Dewhirst, F. E., Chen, T., Izard, J., Paster, B. J., Tanner, A. C. R., Yu, W.-H., Lakshmanan, A. & Wade, W. G. (2010) The human oral microbiome. Journal of Bacteriology 192, 5002-5017.
18. Dewhirst, F. E., Paster, B. J., Tzellas, N., Coleman, B., Downes, J., Spratt, D. A. & Wade, W. G. (2001) Characterization of novel human oral isolates and cloned 16S rDNA sequences that fall in the family Coriobacteriaceae: description of Olsenella gen. nov., reclassification of Lactobacillus uli as Olsenella uli comb. nov. and description of Olsenella profusa sp. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 51, 1797-1804. (Pubitemid 32899216)
19. Do, T., Jolley, K., Maiden, M., Gilbert, S., Clark, D., Wade, W. & Beighton, D. (2009) Population structure of Streptococcus oralis. Microbiology 155, 2593-2602.
20. Downes, J., Munson, M. A., Radford, D. R., Spratt, D. A. & Wade, W. G. (2002) Shuttleworthia satelles gen. nov., sp. nov., isolated from the human oral cavity. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 52, 1469-1475.
21. Downes, J., Sutcliffe, I., Tanner, A. C. & Wade, W. G. (2005) Prevotella marshii sp. nov. and Prevotella baroniae sp. nov., isolated from the human oral cavity. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 55, 1551-1555. (Pubitemid 41015602)
22. Downes, J., Tanner, A. C., Dewhirst, F. E. & Wade, W. G. (2010) Prevotella saccharolytica sp. nov., isolated from the human oral cavity. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 60, 2458-2461.
23. Downes, J., Vartoukian, S. R., Dewhirst, F. E., Izard, J., Chen, T., Yu, W. H., Sutcliffe, I. C. & Wade, W. G. (2009) Pyramidobacter piscolens gen. nov., sp. nov., a member of the phylum 'Synergistetes' isolated from the human oral cavity. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 59, 972-980.
24. Dymock, D., Weightman, A. J., Scully, C. & Wade, W. G. (1996) Molecular analysis of microflora associated with dentoalveolar abscesses. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 34, 537-542. (Pubitemid 26065771)
25. Faveri, M., Mayer, M., Feres, M., de Figueiredo, L., Dewhirst, F. & Paster, B. (2008) Microbiological diversity of generalized aggressive periodontitis by 16S rRNA clonal analysis. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 23, 112-118. (Pubitemid 351249837)
26. Frank, J. A., Reich, C. I., Sharma, S., Weisbaum, J. S., Wilson, B. A. & Olsen, G. J. (2008) Critical evaluation of two primers commonly used for amplification of bacterial 16S rRNA genes. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74, 2461-2470. (Pubitemid 351555459)
27. Giovannoni, S., Britschgi, T., Moyer, C. & Field, K. (1990) Genetic diversity in Sargasso Sea bacterioplankton. Nature 345, 60-63.
28. Gordon, D. G., Stutman, M. & Loesche, W. J. (1971) Improved isolation of anaerobic bacteria from the gingival crevice area of man. Applied Microbiology 21, 1046-1050.
29. Greisen, K., Loeffelholz, M., Purohit, A. & Leong, D. (1994) PCR primers and probes for the 16S rRNA gene of most species of pathogenic bacteria, including bacteria found in cerebrospinal fluid. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 32, 335-351. (Pubitemid 24033893)
30. Hamady, M. & Knight, R. (2009) Microbial community profiling for human microbiome projects: tools, techniques, and challenges. Genome Research 19, 1141-1152.
31. Hanage, W., Fraser, C. & Spratt, B. (2005) Fuzzy species among recombinogenic bacteria. BMC Biology 3, 6.
32. Haubek, D., Dirienzo, J., Tinoco, E., Westergaard, J., López, N., Chung, C., Poulsen, K. & Kilian, M. (1997) Racial tropism of a highly toxic clone of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans associated with juvenile periodontitis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 35, 3037-3042. (Pubitemid 27505715)
33. Haubek, D., Ennibi, O., Poulsen, K., Poulsen, S., Benzarti, N. & Kilian, M. (2001) Early-onset periodontitis in Morocco is associated with the highly leukotoxic clone of Actinobacillus actino-mycetemcomitans. Journal of Dental Research 80, 1580-1583.
34. Hemmens, E. S. & Harrison, R. W. (1942) Studies on the anaerobic bacterial flora of suppurative periodontitis. Journal of Infectious Disease 70, 131-146.
35. Henke, W., Herdel, K., Jung, K., Schnorr, D. & Loening, S. A. (1997) Betaine improves the PCR amplification of GC-rich DNA sequences. Nucleic Acids Research 25, 3957-3958. (Pubitemid 27420509)
36. Henssge, U., Do, T., Radford, D., Gilbert, S., Clark, D. & Beighton, D. (2009) Emended description of Actinomyces naeslundii and descriptions of Actino-myces oris sp. nov. and Actinomyces johnsonii sp. nov., previously identified as Actinomyces naeslundii genospecies 1, 2 and WVA 963. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 59, 509-516.
37. Huang, C. B., Altimova, Y., Strange, S. & Ebersole, J. L. (2010) Polybacterial challenge effects on cytokine/ chemokine production by macrophages and dendritic cells. Inflammation Research, doi: 10.1007/500011-010-0242-0.
38. Hugenholtz, P., Goebel, B. M. & Pace, N. R. (1998) Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity. Journal of Bacteriology 180, 4765-4774. (Pubitemid 28429361)
39. Hutter, G., Schlagenhauf, U., Valenza, G., Horn, M., Burgemeister, S., Claus, H. & Vogel, U. (2003) Molecular analysis of bacteria in periodontitis: evaluation of clone libraries, novel phylotypes and putative pathogens. Microbiology 149, 67-75. (Pubitemid 36175678)
40. Kaeberlein, T., Lewis, K. & Epstein, S. S. (2002) Isolating "uncultivable" microorganisms in pure culture in a simulated natural environment. Science 296, 1127-1129.
41. Keijser, B. J., Zaura, E., Huse, S. M., van der Vossen, J. M., Schuren, F. H., Montijn, R. C., ten Cate, J. M. & Crielaard, W. (2008) Pyrosequencing analysis of the oral microflora of healthy adults. Journal of Dental Research 87, 1016-1020.
42. Kononen, E. & Wade, W. (2007) Propionibacterium, Lactobacillus, Actinomyces, and other non-sporeforming anaerobic Gram-positive rods. In Murray, R. R., Baron, E. J., Jorgensen, J. H., Landry, M. L. & Pfaller, M. A. (eds). Manual of Clinical Microbiology, 9th edition, pp 872-888. Washington: ASM Press.
43. Kumar, P. S., Griffen, A. L., Barton, J. A., Paster, B. J., Moeschberger, M. L. & Leys, E. J. (2003) New bacterial species associated with chronic periodontitis. Journal of Dental Research 82, 338-344. (Pubitemid 41756823)
44. Kumar, P. S., Griffen, A. L., Moeschberger, M. L. & Leys, E. J. (2005) Identification of candidate periodontal pathogens and beneficial species by quantitative 16S clonal analysis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 43, 3944-3955. (Pubitemid 41129685)
45. Lazarevic, V., Whiteson, K., Huse, S., Hernandez, D., Farinelli, L., Osteras, M., Schrenzel, J. & Francois, P. (2009) Metagenomic study of the oral microbiota by Illumina high-throughput sequencing. Journal of Microbiolical Methods 79, 266-271.
46. Lepp, P., Brinig, M., Ouverney, C., Palm, K., Armitage, G. & Relman, D. (2004) Methanogenic Archaea and human periodontal disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 101, 6176-6181. (Pubitemid 38520547)
47. Leys, E., Lyons, S., Moeschberger, M., Rumpf, R. & Griffen, A. (2002) Association of Bacteroides forsythus and a novel Bacteroides phylotype with periodontitis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 40, 821-825. (Pubitemid 34208630)
48. Listgarten, M. & Loomer, P. (2003) Microbial identification in the management of periodontal diseases. A systematic review. Annals of Periodontology 8, 182-192.
49. Maiden, M. (2006) Multilocus sequence typing of bacteria. Annual Review of Microbiology 60, 561-588.
50. Medalia, L. S. (1913) Chronic alveolar osteomyelitis: its causes and treatment with vaccines. Dental Cosmos 55, 24-36.
51. Miller, W. D. (1890) The Microorganisms of the Human Mouth. Philadelphia: The SS White Dental Manufacturing Company.
52. Moore, W. E., Holdeman, L. V., Cato, E. P., Smibert, R. M., Burmeister, J. A. & Ranney, R. R. (1983) Bacteriology of moderate (chronic) periodontitis in mature adult humans. Infection and Immunity 42, 510-515. (Pubitemid 14230240)
53. Moore, W. E., Holdeman, L. V., Smibert, R. M., Good, I. J., Burmeister, J. A., Palcanis, K. G. & Ranney, R. R. (1982a) Bacteriology of experimental gingivitis in young adult humans. Infection and Immunity 38, 651-667. (Pubitemid 12002687)
54. Moore, W. E., Holdeman, L. V., Smibert, R. M., Hash, D. E., Burmeister, J. A. & Ranney, R. R. (1982b) Bacteriology of severe periodontitis in young adult humans. Infection and Immunity 38, 1137-1148. (Pubitemid 13206265)
55. Moter, A., Riep, B., Haban, V., Heuner, K., Siebert, G., Berning, M., Wyss, C., Ehmke, B., Flemmig, T. & Göbel, U. (2006) Molecular epidemiology of oral treponemes in patients with periodontitis and in periodontitis-resistant subjects. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 44, 3078-3085. (Pubitemid 44413734)
56. Munson, M., Banerjee, A., Watson, T. & Wade, W. (2004) Molecular analysis of the microflora associated with dental caries. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 42, 3023-3029. (Pubitemid 38938052)
57. Munson, M., Pitt-Ford, T., Chong, B., Weightman, A. & Wade, W. (2002) Molecular and cultural analysis of the microflora associated with endodontic infections. Journal of Dental Research 81, 761-766.
58. Nasidze, I., Li, J., Quinque, D., Tang, K. & Stoneking, M. (2009a) Global diversity in the human salivary microbiome. Genome Research 19, 636-643.
59. Nasidze, I., Quinque, D., Li, J., Li, M., Tang, K. & Stoneking, M. (2009b) Comparative analysis of human saliva microbiome diversity by barcoded pyrosequencing and cloning approaches. Analytical Biochemistry 391, 64-68.
60. Newman, M. G. & Socransky, S. S. (1977) Predominant cultivable microbiota in periodontosis. Journal of Periodontal Research 12, 120-128. (Pubitemid 8033062)
61. Page, M. I. & King, E. O. (1966) Infection due to Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Haemophilus aphrophilus. New England Journal of Medicine 275, 181-188.
62. Paster, B. J., Boches, S. K., Galvin, J. L., Ericson, R. E., Lau, C. N., Levanos, V. A., Sahasrabudhe, A. & Dewhirst, F. E. (2001) Bacterial diversity in human subgingival plaque. Journal of Bacteriology 183, 3770-3783. (Pubitemid 32510445)
63. Paster, B., Olsen, I., Aas, J. & Dewhirst, F. (2006) The breadth of bacterial diversity in the human periodontal pocket and other oral sites. Periodontology 2000 42, 80-87. (Pubitemid 44286048)
64. Porter, J. R. (1976) Antony van Leeuwenhoek: tercentenary of his discovery of bacteria. Bacteriological Reviews 40, 260-269.
65. Preising, J., Philippe, D., Gleinser, M., Wei, H., Blum, S., Eikmanns, B. J., Niess, J. H. & Riedel, C. U. (2010) Selection of bifidobacteria based on adhesion and anti-inflammatory capacity in vitro for amelioration of murine colitis. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 76, 3048-3051.
66. Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K., Manichanh, C., Nielsen, T., Pons, N., Levenez, F., Yamada, T., Mende, D., Li, J., Xu, J., Li, S., Li, D., Cao, J., Wang, B., Liang, H., Zheng, H., Xie, Y., Tap, J., Lepage, P., Bertalan, M., Batto, J., Hansen, T., Le Paslier, D., Linneberg, A., Nielsen, H., Pelletier, E., Renault, P., Sicheritz-Ponten, T., Turner, K., Zhu, H., Yu, C., Jian, M., Zhou, Y., Li, Y., Zhang, X., Qin, N., Yang, H., Wang, J., Brunak, S., Doré, J., Guarner, F., Kristiansen, K., Pedersen, O., Parkhill, J., Weissenbach, J., Bork, P., Ehrlich, S. & Consortium, M. (2010) A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464, 59-65.
67. Quince, C., Lanzen, A., Curtis, T. P., Davenport, R. J., Hall, N., Head, I. M., Read, L. F. & Sloan, W. T. (2009) Accurate determination of microbial diversity from 454 pyrosequencing data. Nature Methods 6, 639-641.
68. Riep, B., Edesi-Neuss, L., Claessen, F., Skarabis, H., Ehmke, B., Flemmig, T., Bernimoulin, J., Göbel, U. & Moter, A. (2009) Are putative periodontal pathogens reliable diagnostic markers? Journal of Clinical Microbiology 47, 1705-1711.
69. Ronaghi, M. (2001) Pyrosequencing sheds light on DNA sequencing. Genome Research 11, 3-11.
70. Rosebury, T., MacDonald, J. B. & Clark, A. R. (1950) A bacteriologic survey of gingival scrapings from periodontal infections by direct examination, guinea pig inoculation and anaerobic cultivation. Journal of Dental Research 29, 718-731.
71. Rosebury, T. & Reynolds, J. B. (1964) Continuous anaerobiosis for cultivation of spirochaetes. Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 117, 813-815.
72. Rothberg, J. M. & Leamon, J. H. (2008) The development and impact of 454 sequencing. Nature Biotechnology 26, 1117-1124.
73. Shewmaker, P., Gertz, R. J., Kim, C., de Fijter, S., DiOrio, M., Moore, M. & Beall, B. (2010) Streptococcus salivarius meningitis case strain traced to oral flora of anesthesiologist. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 48, 2589-2591.
74. Slots, J. (1976) The predominant cultivable organisms in juvenile periodontitis. Scandinavian Journal of Dental Research 84, 1-10.
75. Slots, J, Reynolds, H. S. & Genco, R. J. (1980) Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans in human periodontal disease: a cross-sectional microbiological investigation. Infection and Immunity 29, 1013-1020. (Pubitemid 10009306)
76. Socransky, S. S., Gibbons, R. J., Dale, A. C., Bortnick, L., Rosenthal, E. & Macdonald, J. B. (1963) The microbiota of the gingival crevice area of man. I. Total microscopic and viable counts and counts of specific organisms. Archives of Oral Biology 8, 275-280.
77. Socransky, S. S., Haffajee, A. D., Cugini, M. A., Smith, C. & Kent, R. L. Jr. (1998) Microbial complexes in subgingival plaque. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 25, 134-144. (Pubitemid 128705944)
78. Socransky, S. S., Macdonald, J. B. & Sawyer, S. (1959) The cultivation of Treponema microdentium as surface colonies. Archives of Oral Biology 1, 171-172.
79. Socransky, S. S., Smith, C., Martin, L., Paster, B. J., Dewhirst, F. E. & Levin, A. E. (1994) "Checkerboard" DNA - DNA hybridization. Biotechniques 17, 788-792.
80. Sogin, M. L., Morrison, H. G., Huber, J. A., Mark Welch, D., Huse, S. M., Neal, P. R., Arrieta, J. M. & Herndl, G. J. (2006) Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored "rare biosphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 103, 12115-12120.
81. Spratt, D., Weightman, A. & Wade, W. (1999) Diversity of oral asaccharolytic Eubacterium species in periodontitis - identification of novel phylotypes representing uncultivated taxa. Oral Microbiology and Immunology 14, 56-59. (Pubitemid 29042969)
82. Streit, W. & Schmitz, R. (2004) Metagenomics - the key to the uncultured microbes. Current Opinion in Microbiology 7, 492-498. (Pubitemid 39297129)
83. Tanner, A. C., Haffer, C., Bratthall, G. T., Visconti, R. A. & Socransky, S. S. (1979) A study of the bacteria associated with advancing periodontitis in man. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 6, 278-307. (Pubitemid 10191673)
84. Taubman, M., Kawai, T. & Han, X. (2007) The new concept of periodontal disease pathogenesis requires new and novel therapeutic strategies. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 34, 367-369.
85. Tettelin, H., Masignani, V., Cieslewicz, M., Donati, C., Medini, D., Ward, N., Angiuoli, S., Crabtree, J., Jones, A., Durkin, A., Deboy, R., Davidsen, T., Mora, M., Scarselli, M., Margarit y Ros, I., Peterson, J., Hauser, C., Sundaram, J., Nelson, W., Madupu, R., Brinkac, L., Dodson, R., Rosovitz, M., Sullivan, S., Daugherty, S., Haft, D., Selengut, J., Gwinn, M., Zhou, L., Zafar, N., Khouri, H., Radune, D., Dimitrov, G., Watkins, K., O'Connor, K., Smith, S., Utterback, T., White, O., Rubens, C., Grandi, G., Madoff, L., Kasper, D., Telford, J., Wessels, M., Rappuoli, R. & Fraser, C. (2005) Genome analysis of multiple pathogenic isolates of Streptococcus agalactiae: implications for the microbial "pan-genome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 102, 13950-13955.
86. The NIH Human Microbiome Working Group. (2009) The NIH human microbiome project. Genome Research 19, 2317-2323.
87. Tsai, C. C., McArthur, W. P., Baehni, P. C., Hammond, B. F. & Taichman, N. S. (1979) Extraction and partial characterization of a leukotoxin from a plaque-derived Gram-negative microorganism. Infection and Immunity 25, 427-439. (Pubitemid 9226058)
88. Tunnicliff, R., Fink, E. B. & Hammond, C. (1936) Significance of fusiform bacilli and spirilla in gingival tissue. Journal of the American Dental Association 23, 1959-1965.
89. Uematsu, H. & Hoshino, E. (1992) Predominant obligate anaerobes in human periodontal pockets. Journal of Periodontal Research 27, 15-19.
90. Vartoukian, S. R., Palmer, R. M. & Wade, W. G. (2010) Cultivation of a Synergistetes strain representing a previously uncultivated lineage. Environmental Microbiology 12, 916-928.
91. Vartoukian, S., Palmer, R. & Wade, W. (2009) Diversity and morphology of members of the phylum "Synergistetes" in periodontal health and disease. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 75, 3777-3786.
92. von Wintzingerode, F., Gobel, U. B. & Stackebrandt, E. (1997) Determination of microbial diversity in environmental samples: pitfalls of PCR-based rRNA analysis. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 21, 213-229. (Pubitemid 28018202)
93. Wantland, W. W., Wantland, E. M., Remo, J. W. & Winquist, D. L. (1958) Studies on human mouth protozoa. Journal of Dental Research 37, 949-950.
94. Ward, D., Weller, R. & Bateson, M. (1990) 16S rRNA sequences reveal numerous uncultured microorganisms in a natural community. Nature 345, 63-65.
95. Woese, C. R. (1987) Bacterial evolution. Microbiological Reviews 51, 221-271.
96. Wyss, C. (1989) Dependence of proliferation of Bacteroides forsythus on exogenous N- acetylmuramic acid. Infection and Immunity 57, 1757-1759.
97. Ximenez-Fyvie, L. A., Haffajee, A. D. & Socransky, S. S. (2000) Comparison of the microbiota of supra- and subgingival plaque in health and periodontitis. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 27, 648-657.